Citrus Fruit - Biology, Technology and Evaluation

FRONT COVER

CITRUS FRUIT

COPYRIGHT PAGE

CONTENTS

PREFACE

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Chapter 1 Introduction

I. Citrus Fruit Production and Prospects

II. Postharvest Overview

III. Conclusion

References

Chapter 2 Commercial Fresh Citrus Cultivars and Producing Countries

I. Citrus Cultivars for Fresh Fruit Market

A. Sweet Orange

B. Mandarin

C. Grapefruit (Citrus paradisi Macfadyen)

D. Pummelo or Shaddock (C. grandis or C. maxima)

E. Hybrids of Pummelo and Grapefruit

F. Lemon (Citrus limon)

G. Acid Lime

H. Sweet Lime (Citrus limettioides Tanaka)

I. Citron (Citrus medica Lin.)

J. Calamondin (Citrus madurensis Loureiro)

K. Natsudaidai (Citrus natsudaidai Hayata)

L. Hassaku (Citrus hassaku Tanaka)

M. Kumquat (Fortunella spp.)

N. Bael (Aegle marmelos (L.) Correa.)

II. Countries, Varieties Grown, and Harvesting Seasons

A. Northern Hemisphere

B. Southern Hemisphere

References

Chapter 3 Postharvest Losses

I. Mandarins

A. 'Nagpur' Mandarin

B. 'Coorg' Mandarin

C. 'Khasi' Mandarin

II. Acid Lime

III. Sweet Orange and Grapefruit

IV. Measures to Reduce Losses

References

Chapter 4 Preharvest Factors Affecting Fruit Quality and Postharvest Life

I. Orchard Health

A. Diseases That Affect Fruit Quality in the Field

B. Insect-Pests and Mites

II. Tree Nutrition and Cultivation Practices

III. Preharvest Sprays

A. Auxins

B. Gibberellins

C. Other Chemicals

D. Ethephon and Other Chemicals for Fruit Color Improvement

E. Fungicides

IV. Climatic Factors

References

Chapter 5 Fruit Morphology, Anatomy, and Physiology

I. Fruit Morphology

A. Fruit Characteristics

II. Fruit Anatomy

III. Fruit Physiology

A. Respiratory Activity

B. Biochemistry of Respiration

C. Transpiration

D. Role of Ethylene

E. Color Development and Regreening

F. Fruit Abscission

G. Fruit Hormonal Balance

References

Chapter 6 Fruit Biochemistry

I. Carbohydrates

A. Monosaccharides

B. Oligosaccharides

C. Sugar Derivatives

D. Changes in Sugars during Fruit Growth and Storage

E. Polysaccharides

F. Changes in Polysaccharides during Fruit Growth and Maturation

II. Organic Acids

A. Changes in Organic Acids During Fruit Growth and Maturation

B. Physiological Role of Organic Acids

III. Nitrogenous Compounds

A. Amino Acids

B. Amines

C. Proteins

D. Nucleotides and Nucleic Acids

IV. Enzymes

A. Polysaccharides and Pectic Enzyme Complex

B. Sugar Metabolizing Enzymes

C. Other Important Enzymes

V. Lipids, Waxes, and Other Related Compounds

A. Cutin

B. Waxes

C. Terpenoids and Steroids

VI. Pigments

VII. Phenols, Flavonoids, and Limonoids

A. Phenols

B. Flavonoids

C. Limonoids

VIII. Vitamins

IX. Inorganic Constituents

X. Citrus Oils and Volatile Flavoring Compounds

A. Tangerine and Mandarin

B. Orange

C. Grapefruit and Pummelo

D. Lemon

E. Lime

F. Other Citrus and Related Fruits

References

Chapter 7 Growth, Maturity, Grade Standards, and Physico-Mechanical Characteristics of Fruit

I. Citrus Fruit and Climate

II. Growth and Development

A. Mineral Nutrition and Fruit Growth

B. Fruit Maturation

III. Indices of Maturity, Fruit Grades, and Standards

A. Indices of Maturity (Internal Standards)

B. Fruit Grades (External Standards)

IV. Physical and Mechanical Characteristics

References

Chapter 8 Harvesting

I. Methods of Harvesting

A. Manual Harvesting

B. Mechanical Harvesting

References

Chapter 9 Preparation for Fresh Fruit Market

I. Degreening

A. Degreening Conditions

B. Ethephon, Ethylene, and Other Compounds Enhancing Rind Color

C. Degreening Rooms

D. Changes in Physico-Chemical Attributes of Degreened Fruit

E. Respiration

F. Fruit Color and Mass Loss in Degreened Fruit

G. Decay and Disorders in Degreened Fruit

H. Color Improvement with Other Methods

II. Packinghouse Operations

A. Mechanized Operations

B. Commodity-specific Operations

C. Care During Handling of Fruit on Packing Line

D. Manual versus Mechanical Operations

E. Packinghouse Environment, Worker Conditions, and Safety Rules

F. Sanitation

G. Wastewater Disposal

H. Economics and Energy Needs of Packinghouse Operations

I. Conventional Operations in Developing Countries and Recent Developments

J. Some Tips for Export of Citrus Fruits

III. Postharvest Treatments

A. Curing

B. Disinfection and Cleaning

C. Surface Coatings

D. Plant-Growth Regulators

E. Other Chemicals

References

Chapter 10 Packaging

I. Containers and Packaging Materials

A. Bulk Handling Containers

B. Containers for Transport/Shipment

C. Commodity-specific Containers

D. Filling and Packing of Boxes

E. Transportworthiness and Strength of the Boxes

F. Stacking and Handling

G. Packaging for Retail Market

II. Film-wrapping and Seal-packaging

A. Seal-packaging

B. Commodity-specific Response to Seal-Packaging

C. Advantages of Seal-packaging

III. Modified Atmosphere Packaging (MAP)

A. Plastic Films and Their Characteristics

B. Citrus Fruit Responses to Modified Atmosphere Packaging

References

Chapter 11 Precooling and Refrigeration

I. Temperature, RH, and Vapor pressure Deficit

II. Mechanical Refrigeration

A. Refrigeration Equipment and Cooling Plant

B. Construction of Cold Storage Rooms

C. Heat Load and Thermal Properties

III. Precooling

A. Effect of Precooling on Various Citrus Fruits

B. Packaging Containers and Their Alignment during Precooling

References

Chapter 12 Storage Systems and Response of Citrus Fruits

I. Storage Systems

A. Refrigerated Storage

B. Storage at Suboptimal or Chilling Temperatures

C. Controlled Atmosphere (CA)

D. Hypobaric Storage

E. Evaporative Cool Storage and Other Natural Systems

F. Storage Under Ambient Conditions

II. Removal of Ethylene from Storage Area

III. Changes in Fruit Composition during Storage

A. Total Soluble Solids, Sugars, and Acidity

B. Volatiles

C. Enzymes

D. Ascorbic Acid

E. Pectic Substances

F. Lipid Fraction

References

Chapter 13 Transportation

I. Road and Vehicle Condition

II. Surface Transport

A. Trailers/Trucks (Refrigerated and Non-refrigerated)

B. TOFC

C. Rail Cars

D. Reefer Containers (Refrigerated Containers)

E. Cargo Holds of Ships

III. Conditioning and Quarantine Treatments during Transportation

IV. Air Shipments

References

Chapter 14 Marketing and Distribution

I. Marketing Systems and Distribution

A. Japan

B. Taiwan

C. China

D. South Asia

E. Europe

F. Israel

G. South Africa

H. United States

I. Australia

References

Chapter 15 Irradiation

I. Ionizing Radiation

A. Irradiation Process

B. Possible Benefits of Irradiation in Citrus

C. Physiological, Physico-chemical, and Organoleptic Properties of Fruit

D. Phytotoxic Effect of Irradiation on Peel and Flesh

References

Chapter 16 Postharvest Diseases and Their Management

I. Postharvest Diseases

A. Decay from Field Infection

B. Decay from Postharvest Infection

C. Physiological Effects of Postharvest Infection

II. Pesticides, Residues, and Tolerances

A. Disinfectants and Fungicides

B. Postharvest Fungicide Treatments

C. Strategies against Decay and Resistance Development

D. Residues and Tolerances

III. Organic Postharvest Management

A. GRAS Chemicals

B. Bioagents (Microbial Antagonists)

C. Botanicals and Other Organic Compounds

D. Physical Methods

References

Chapter 17 Physiological Disorders and Their Management

I. Disorders Caused by Postharvest Factors

A. Chilling Injury

B. Oleocellosis (Rind-Oil Spot)

C. Rind Staining

D. Kohansho

E. Peteca

F. Red Blotch or Red-Colored Lesions

G. Stylar-End Breakdown

H. Stem-End Rind Breakdown (SERB)

II. Disorders Caused by Preharvest Factors

A. Freeze Injury

B. Granulation

C. Fruit Splitting or Cracking

D. Puffiness

E. Superficial Rind Pitting (SRP)

F. Creasing

G. Sunburn/Sunscald

References

Chapter 18 Postharvest Treatments for Insect Control

I. Fly-free-zone Protocol

II. Fruit-fly Disinfestation

A. Chemical Control

B. Physical Treatments

References

Chapter 19 Fruit Quality Control, Evaluation, and Analysis

I. Fruit Quality

A. Physical Parameters

B. Chemical Parameters

C. Physiological Parameters

II. Analysis of Quality Attributes and Instruments

A. Physical Attributes

B. Chemical Attributes

C. Physiological Attributes

D. Sensory Attributes

E. Fruit Sampling

F. Instruments Useful in Storage Atmosphere Management

III. Rapid Non-destructive Quality Evaluation and Application

A. External Quality Evaluation

B. Internal Quality Evaluation

IV. Quality Control and Assurance Systems

References

Chapter 20 Nutritive and Medicinal Value of Citrus Fruits

I. Nutritive Value of Citrus Fruits in the Human Diet

A. Calorific Value

B. Minerals

C. Dietary Fiber and Pectin

II. Therapeutic/Medicinal Value

A. Vitamins

B. Role of Citrus Fruits in Reducing Risk of Human Diseases

III. Nutritive and Medicinal Value of Bael (Aegle marmelos)

References

Chapter 21 Biotechnological Applications in Fresh Citrus Fruit

References

Chapter 22 World Fresh Citrus Trade and Quarantine Issues

I. Exports, Imports, and World Trade

A. Fresh Citrus Consumption Trend

B. Major Exporting Countries

C. Major Importing Countries

D. Fresh Citrus Trade Prospects

E. Barriers in Citrus Trade

II. Quarantine Issues

A. Quarantine Regulations

References

ANNEXURE I

ANNEXURE II

GLOSSARY

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COLOR PLATES