Handbook of Vacuum Science and Technology

Cover

Contents

Preface

List of Contributors

Part 1: Fundamentals of Vacuum Technology and Surface Physics

Chapter 1.1. Vacuum Nomenclature and Definitions

1.1.1 Basic Definition

1.1.2 Pressure Regions of Vacuum

Chapter 1.2. Gas Properties

1.2.1 Description of Vacuum as a Low-Pressure Gas

1.2.2 Characteristics of a Gas„Basic Definitions

1.2.3 Gas Laws

Chapter 1.3. Molecular Processes and Kinetic Theory

1.3.1 General Description

1.3.2 Molecular Motion

1.3.3 Kinetic Theory Derivation of the Gas Laws

1.3.4 Pressure

1.3.5 Molecular Mean Free Path

1.3.6 Number of Impacts with the Chamber Wall

1.3.7 Time to Form a Monolayer

1.3.8 Thermal Transpiration

1.3.9 Coefficient of Thermal Conductivity

1.3.10 Coefficient of Diffusion

Chapter 1.4. Throughput, Pumping Speed, Evacuation Rate, Outgassing Rate, and Leak Rate

Chapter 1.5. Gas Flow

1.5.1 Nature of Gas Flow

1.5.2 Turbulent Flow

1.5.3 Viscous, Streamline, or Laminar Flow

1.5.4 Molecular Flow

1.5.5 Flow Relationships

Chapter 1.6. Conductance

1.6.1 Conductance

1.6.2 Conductances in Parallel

1.6.3 Conductances in Series

Chapter 1.7. Flow Calculations

1.7.1 Equations for Viscous Flow

1.7.2 Equations for Molecular Flow

1.7.3 Knudsen's Formulation

1.7.4 Clausing Factors

Chapter 1.8. Surface Physics and Its Relation to Vacuum Science

1.8.1 Physical Adsorption or "Adsorption"

1.8.2 Chemisorption

1.8.3 Sticking Coefficient

1.8.4 Surface Area

1.8.5 Surface Adsorption Isotherms

1.8.6 Capillary Action

1.8.7 Condensation

1.8.8 Desorption Phenomena

1.8.9 Thermal Desorption

1.8.10 Photoactivation

1.8.11 Ultrasonic Desorption

1.8.12 Electron- and Ion-Stimulated Desorption

1.8.13 Gas Release from Surfaces

References

Part 2: Creation of Vacuum

Chapter 2.1. Technology of Vacuum Pumps „ An Overview

2.1.1 Vacuum Pump Function Basics

2.1.2 Gas Transport: Throughput

2.1.3 Performance Parameters

2.1.4 Pumping Speed

2.1.5 Pumpdown Time

2.1.6 Ultimate Pressure

2.1.7 Forevacuum and High-Vacuum Pumping

2.1.8 Pump System Relationships

2.1.9 Crossover from Rough to High-Vacuum Pumps

2.1.10 Pumping System Design

References

Chapter 2.2. Diaphragm Pumps

2.2.1 Introduction: Basics and Operating Principle

2.2.2 State-of-the-Art Design and Manufacturing

2.2.3 Performance and Technical Data

2.2.4 Modular Concept for Specific Application Setups: Standalone Operation

2.2.5 Diaphragm Pumps as Backing and Auxiliary Pumps in Vacuum Systems

References

Chapter 2.3. Vacuum Blowers

2.3.1 Introduction

2.3.2 Equipment Description

2.3.3 Blower Operating Principle

2.3.4 Blower Pumping Efficiency

2.3.5 Blower Pumping Speed Calculations

2.3.6 Power Requirements

2.3.7 Temperature Considerations

2.3.8 Flow and Compression Ratio Control Mechanisms

2.3.9 Liquid-Sealed Blowers

2.3.10 Selected System Arrangements

Chapter 2.4. Vacuum Jet Pumps (Diffusion Pumps)

2.4.1 Basic Pumping Mechanism

2.4.2 Pumping Speed

2.4.3 Throughput

2.4.4 Tolerable Forepressure

2.4.5 Ultimate Pressure

2.4.6 Backstreaming

2.4.7 Other Performance Aspects

References

Chapter 2.5. Cryogenic Pumps

2.5.1 Introduction

2.5.2 Cryopump Basics

2.5.3 Advanced Control Systems

2.5.4 Cryopump Process Applications

2.5.5 Cryogenic Pumps Specifically for Water Vapor

2.5.6 Comparison of Cryopumps to Other Types of Pumps

2.5.7 Future Developments

References

Chapter 2.6. Turbomolecular Pumps

2.6.1 Turbomolecular Pumps (TMP)

2.6.2 Molecular Drag Pumps (MDP)

2.6.3 Combination of Pumps (TMP + MDP)

2.6.4 Evaluation of Combinations of Backing Pumps and TMPs, Etc

2.6.5 The Use of TMP in Applications: Specific Effects and Demands

2.6.6 Avoiding Operational Mistakes

References

Chapter 2.7. Pumps for Ultra-High Vacuum Applications

2.7.1 System Design for Ultra-High Vacuum

2.7.2 The Selection of Pumps for Ultra-High Vacuum Applications

2.7.3 Sputter-Ion Pumps

2.7.4 Getter Pumps

References

Part 3: Vacuum Measurements

Chapter 3.1. The Measurement of Low Pressures

3.1.1 Overview

3.1.2 Direct Reading Gauges

3.1.3 Indirect Reading Gauges

3.1.4 Calibration of Vacuum Gauges

References

Chapter 3.2. Mass Analysis and Partial Pressure Measurements

3.2.1 Overview and Applications

3.2.2 Inlet Systems

3.2.3 Ion Generation and Ion Sources

3.2.4 Ion Separation Analyzers

3.2.5 Detection of Ions

References

Chapter 3.3. Practical Aspects of Vacuum System Mass Spectrometers

3.3.1 Historical Insight

3.3.2 Expected Gases in a Vacuum System

3.3.3 The Ion Generation Process

3.3.4 Techniques for Analysis

3.3.5 Calibration of Vacuum System Mass Spectrometers

3.3.6 Some Applications

References

Chapter 3.4. Mass Flow Measurement and Control

3.4.1 General Principles of Mass Flow Measurement

3.4.2 Overview of Thermal Mass Flow Controller Technology

3.4.3 Performance Characteristics

3.4.4 Troubleshooting

References

Part 4: Systems Design and Components

Chapter 4.1. Selection Considerations for Vacuum Valves

4.1.1 Introduction

4.1.2 Valves for Shutoff

4.1.3 Valves for Control

4.1.4 Valve Construction

4.1.5 Specialty Valves

4.1.6 Installation Considerations for Vacuum Valves

References

Chapter 4.2. Flange and Component Systems

4.2.1 Introduction

4.2.2 Selecting a Flange System

4.2.3 Common Flange Systems

4.2.4 Components with Flanges Attached

Trademarks

References

Chapter 4.3. Magnetic-Fluid-Sealed Rotary Motion Feedthroughs

4.3.1 Basic Sealing Principle

4.3.2 Application Factors

4.3.3 Impact of Feedthrough on Process

4.3.4 Impact of Process on Feedthrough

4.3.5 Materials Considerations

4.3.6 Application Examples

4.3.7 Comparison to Other Types of Feedthroughs

Chapter 4.4. Viewports

4.4.1 Materials

4.4.2 Mounting Systems and Precautions

CH4Chapter 4.5. Construction Materials

4.5.1 Properties Defining Material Performance

4.5.2 Vacuum Chamber Materials

4.5.3 Special-Purpose Materials

References

Chapter 4.6. Demountable Seals for Flanges and Valves

4.6.1 Sealing Overview: Polymer and Metal Seals

4.6.2 The Elastomeric and Nonelastomeric Polymers Used in Vacuum Sealing

4.6.3 Metal Seals

References

Chapter 4.7. Outgassing of Materials

4.7.1 Relationships Among System Pressure, Pumping Speed, and Outgassing

4.7.2 Initial Pumpdown from Atmospheric Pressure

4.7.3 Pressure Vs. Time During Outgassing

4.7.4 The Outgassing Rate of Elastomers and Plastics

4.7.5 The Outgassing Rate of Metals and Ceramics

4.7.6 The Outgassing Rate of Preconditioned Vacuum Systems After Short Exposure to the Atmosphere

4.7.7 Methods of Decreasing the Outgassing Rate

4.7.8 Measurement of the Outgassing Rate of Materials

References

Chapter 4.8. Aluminum-Based Vacuum Systems

4.8.1 Outgassing

4.8.2 Demountable Seals

4.8.3 Cleaning and Surface Finishing

4.8.4 Mechanical Considerations

4.8.5 Thermal Conductivity and Emissivity

4.8.6 Corrosion

4.8.7 Welding Aluminum for Vacuum Applications

References

Chapter 4.9. Preparation and Cleaning of Vacuum Surfaces

4.9.1 Surface Modification

4.9.2 External Cleaning

4.9.3 Assembly, Handling, and Storage

4.9.4 In Situ Cleaning

4.9.5 Documentation

4.9.6 Conclusion

Trade Names

References

Part 5: Vacuum Applications

Chapter 5.1. High-Vacuum-Based Processes: Sputtering

5.1.1 Sputtering and Deposition

5.1.2 Sputter Deposition Technologies

5.1.3 Magnetron Applications

5.1.4 Future Directions in Sputtering

References

Chapter 5.2. Plasma Etching

5.2.1 Introduction

5.2.2 Review of Plasma Concepts Applicable to Etching Reactors

5.2.3 Basic Plasma Etching Requirements

5.2.4 Plasma Diagnostics

5.2.5 Basic Plasma Etch Reactors

5.2.6 Advanced Plasma Etch Reactors

5.2.7 New Trends

References

Chapter 5.3. Ion Beam Technology

5.3.1 Introduction

5.3.2 Ion Beam Etching

5.3.3 Ion Beam Sputter Deposition

5.3.4 lon-Beam-Assisted Deposition

5.3.5 Ion Beam Direct Deposition

5.3.6 Conclusion

References

Chapter 5.4. Pulsed Laser Deposition

5.4.1 Introduction

5.4.2 Pulsed Laser Deposition System

5.4.3 The Ablation Mechanism

5.4.4 Advantages and Limitations

5.4.5 Materials Survey

5.4.6 Future Outlook

References

Chapter 5.5. Plasma-Enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposition

5.5.1 Introduction

5.5.2 Equipment and Other Practical Considerations

5.5.3 Process Scaleup

5.5.4 Conclusion

References

Chapter 5.6. Common Analytical Methods for Surface and Thin Film

5.6.1 Introduction

5.6.2 The Electron Spectroscopies

5.6.3 Methods Based on Ion Bombardment

5.6.4 UHV Generation and System Considerations for Surface Analysis

References

Part 6: Large-Scale Vacuum-Based Processes

Chapter 6.1. Roll-to-Roll Vacuum Coating

6.1.1 Overview of Roll-to-Roll Vacuum Coating

6.1.2 Typical Products

6.1.3 Materials and Deposition Processes Commonly Used in Roll-to-Roll Coating

6.1.4 Vacuum Systems for Roll-to-Roll Coating Applications

6.1.5 Substrates (Webs)

6.1.6 Process Control

6.1.7 Specific Problems Exhibited by Coatings

References

Chapter 6.2. The Development of Ultra-High-Vacuum Technology for Particle Accelerators and Magnetic Fusion Devices

6.2.1 Introduction

6.2.2 Storage Rings and the Need for UHV

6.2.3 UHV for Early Storage Rings

6.2.4 Storage Ring Vacuum Vessel and Pumping System Developments

6.2.5 Cold-Bore Machines

6.2.6 Superconducting RF Accelerators

6.2.7 The Next-Generation Big Accelerator?

6.2.8 The Magnetic Fusion Road Map

6.2.9 The Early History of Magnetic Fusion

6.2.10 Model C: The First UHV Fusion Device

6.2.11 The Russian Revolution in Fusion: Tokamaks

6.2.12 Plasma Impurities and Vacuum Technology

6.2.13 Toward the Breakeven Demonstrations

6.2.14 The Next Step in Fusion

Acknowledgments

References

Index