II.THE ARCHAIC PERIOD

(I) PRIMITIVE CONDITIONS OF THE COUNTRY

BEFORE THE WATER WAS THUS controlled, the land in its primitive condition was full of swamps, and the drier ground thick with undergrowth and trees. The Nile itself, choked in its sluggish course by thickly growing weeds, water-lilies, and tall papyrus rushes, shifted constantly, leaving behind stagnant pools. In these marshes lived the crocodile and hippopotamus. In the low jungle and in the tamarisk and mimosa scrub were found the elephant, the giraffe, the wild ox, and the hog. In the deserts and on the outskirts of the unclaimed land were lion and leopard, and presumably the tiger also. Their prey were the bubale, the oryx, the ibex, and the addax, as well as smaller kinds of the antelope family. The ostrich also was present, but, like most of the ancient fauna, has since retreated before the advance of civilization. It is on the upper reaches only of the Nile that any resemblance to this primitive condition may still be found, and there is reason to believe that the fauna and flora of the whole valley were much more uniform in ancient times than now. The fox and the jackal, the hyena, and occasionally a wolf, still make their lairs in the desolate cliffs that fringe the country. The wildcat, too, is common. The Egyptian cobra and the deadly asp also are found; while among the birds are the eagle, the vulture, and the hawk. While bright-plumed birds are not uncommon, songsters are rare. The ox, the goat, the ass, and the dog were already domesticated by the earliest historic settlers.

(II) EARLY MAN

From this wild state the land has been reclaimed for settlement and cultivation by human agency. The marshes have been drained, the jungle cleared, the wild animals slain or driven southward, and all the forces adverse to civilization restrained by the hand of man working unremittingly from the beginning. It is not possible to say whence or when the people came who began this work. The earliest civilizations of the world have been found sequestered on the banks of great rivers, like the Yangtse, the Ganges, the Euphrates, or the Nile. Of the two latter, modern research has shown that the Euphrates had long nurtured a civilization which had already advanced far, before that of Egypt awoke. But in a country naturally so productive, situated, too, at the junction of two great continents, it is reasonable to expect traces of human inhabitants at a very early date. Stone weapons of palaeolithic character, indeed, are found, mostly in desert places. Some of these doubtless are the rougher implements of a later age; but others, particularly those found in caves or on the high plateau, seem to indicate the presence of man in the earliest recognized stage of culture.

This age was followed by one more advanced, if indeed it be right to read back from the evidences of later times, and to draw inference from the sequence of events in other lands. First Man had learned, either spontaneously or profiting by the experience of others, to fashion better implements, and to improve in general the necessaries of existence. For his increasing needs he slowly elaborated his finely-worked flint knife, using still his rougher weapon as in former times for rougher purposes. He persevered, still learning and still making, and so progressing. Upon him next dawned the possibility of using metal, brought, maybe, from the hills of Sinai. His copper needles were much more serviceable, though not so pleasing, as the older ones of bone. The copper knife which he then made proved much more durable than that of flint. So he adopted this newer art, and was stimulated thereby to further progress. Relieved to some extent of the incessant struggle for existence, he turned to improve the conditions of his life. His dwelling was better built, his pottery less rude, with some show of decoration, and he adorned his person and those of his household with small ornaments fashioned in his leisure moments. His mind, too, began to dwell upon those impressions of his surroundings which generations of his forefathers had observed and handed down. Each day the sun went down only to rise again with renewed brilliance when the time of darkness was over. From sleep, in which for a time he seemed to leave his mortal body, he awoke to life refreshed. The year withered and died, but each spring came back unfailingly, buoyant and green. Changes he observed in order, but cessation was nohow suggested. Therefore, death—so like to sleep—seemed nothing but a phase; and obedient to this instinct, he placed the best of all his trinkets and vases in the graves of his dead for use and adornment in the coming state. It is at this stage that the light of research reveals him.

(III) EARLY BURIAL CUSTOMS

The permanence of the burial customs shows how real this religious instinct was, and how deeply it had already permeated the heart of the people. It is indeed chiefly from the furniture of the tombs that archaeology has been able to trace the history of the national life and art through more than five thousand years. However many the varying phases in religion and ritual, politics and state, through this long cycle of years the main belief of the people in a future life never altered. The vast solitudes and dangers that encircled the Egyptian, the industry that nature demanded of him, the dry cold of the winter winds and the relentless heat of the long summer months, gave a tinge of solemnity and sadness to his character. No singing bird gladdened his ear, no changes of scenery rejoiced his eye, no prospect of sudden plenty cheered his heart. He grew to regard present life as a time allowed for preparations necessary to the future that would bring relief. Other peoples under different skies have framed a different aspect to their thoughts. The Greek, whose isles were among dancing seas, whose green uplands were made bright by the sparkle of streams, saw first the happiness of youth and living. But the Egyptian clung to his sombre deities for protection from a world full of evils. The heroes of his fancy were possessed of superhuman or unnatural powers, and the battles they fought were a doubtful struggle between darkness and light.

Remote though the period is in point of time, yet the civilization which these earliest graves reveal was already advanced and possessed some degree of luxury. In them have been found, doubtless, the best products of their art, articles of personal adornment, beads of gold, colored stones and shells, glazed objects, and ornaments carved in ivory. The fine working of stone, characteristic of the age, is seen alike in numerous vases of diorite and Egyptian alabaster, with some of the rarer varieties, as in the flint knives and bracelets more skilfully finished than anything which the neolithic age of Europe produced. The pottery of this time, mostly made by hand, is more highly polished and more elaborately decorated than any of the later historic period. At first the art of working copper is found to be incipient, but it progressed and persevered simultaneously with other features of this culture into historic times. It is impossible, therefore, to separate this period from that which followed by any term such as prehistoric. The elements of the culture remained the same long after the use of writing became common. The life of the people, too, was possessed already of some social system. The houses were grouped together as settlements, being made of wicker plastered with mud, and strengthened sometimes by wooden posts. Food was cooked in large pots of coarse texture placed over the fire of twigs. A few store vessels, large and not well made, held the grain and products of the soil. Vast numbers of flint chippings and cores strewn about, mingled with the bones of fish and cattle, and even of the crocodile, reveal the daily occupations of the people. Great hoes of flint, smoothly polished on the working side, show that the ground was cultivated with toil and care. The conditions thus disclosed are primitive, but this rainless climate demands no special attention to the dwelling-house or to the conditions of living. Though simple in construction, the grouping of these dwellings shows also the elements of a village system. The numerous standards, the emblems of different families, clans, or districts, which they painted upon the vases of pottery, suggest a distinction and separation of communities, each tribe owing allegiance to its chief.

(IV) FOREIGN INFLUENCES

These divisions are the natural outcome of the mingled elements of the people, fostered as they were by the peculiar length and narrowness of the valley. United only as the population of a common country, they were none the less derived indigenously from various stocks, fed from as many sources. The boundaries of the country lay open to influences from every side: from the west by the coast, from Central Africa across the deserts, from the south down the upper reaches of the Nile, and from the southeast by the natural roadways leading from the Red Sea to Upper Egypt. On the east again the continuous strip of land that joins the continents, and on the north the waters of the eastern Mediterranean, made easier direct contact between Lower Egypt and the early civilizations of Western Asia. The subsequent history of the country shows that through all time these influences were active, varying only in intensity from their several sources, and the evidence of the language finally adopted by the composite nation shows the prominent elements of the Semitic character with slighter but still definite traces from Africa on the south and west. The writing also in its earliest form betrays the direct influence of the Asiatic pictorial...