Landscapes and Societies - Selected Cases

Preface

Contents

List of Contributors

List of Reviewers

Part I Introduction

Summaries of the Contributions and Few Considerations

1.1 The Chapters: Brief Summaries and Considerations

1.2 Commentary

References

A Semantic Introduction

2.1 Landscape and Land

2.2 Landscape Quality

2.3 Society, Culture and Civilization

2.4 Determinism

2.5 Adaptation

2.6 Sustainability

References

Womb, belly and landscape in the Anthropocene

3.1 Historical Background

3.1.1 The Neolithic Revolution

3.1.2 Expansion into Europe

3.1.3 Synoptic History of British Agriculture

3.2 Landscape Change and the Soil: Anthropic Change in the Landscape

3.2.1 Conversion of the Land Cover

3.2.2 Land Degradation

3.2.3 Intensification of Land Use

3.3 Discussion: The Human Ecological Footprint on the Land

3.3.1 Sustainability

3.4 Conclusions

References

Part II The Mediterranean and European World–Arid Mediterranean Lands

Human Responses to Climatically-driven Landscape Change and Resource Scarcity: Learning from the Past and Planning for the Future

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Linked Climatic and Environmental Change in the Middle Holocene

4.2.1 Rapid Climate Change Events and the Approach to the 6th Millennium BP

4.2.2 NHST Aridification and Widespread Climatic Reorganization in the 6th Millennium BP

4.2.3 The 5200 BP Cold, Arid Crisis and the end of the Holocene Climatic Optimum

4.2.4 Summary

4.3 Human Responses to Climatic and Environmental Change in the Middle Holocene

4.3.1 Linking Environmental and Cultural Change

4.3.2 The Sahara: Climate, Livelihoods, Mobility and Social Organisation

4.3.3 Egypt: Confinement and Social Stratification

4.3.4 Mesopotamia: Shifting Settlement Patterns and Urbanisation

4.4 Synthesis: Recurring Responses to RCC and Climatic Desiccation

4.5 Lessons from the 6th Millennium BP for the Twenty-First Century

4.6 Conclusions

References

Human Communities in a Drying Landscape: Holocene Climate Change and Cultural Response in the Central Sahara

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Paleoclimate of Central Sahara

5.3 Geological and Geomorphologic Background

5.4 The Wet Holocene: Landscapes and Strategies

5.4.1 Inside the Mountain Range of the Tadrart Acacus

5.4.1.1 Configuration and Paleoclimate of the Tadrart Acacus at the Beginning of the Holocene

5.4.1.2 Living in Caves and Rockshelters

5.4.2 The ErgUan Kasa

5.4.2.1 Geomorphology and Sediments

5.4.2.2 Settlements in the ErgUan Kasa

5.4.3 The Wadi Tanezzuft and the Garat Ouda Paleolake

5.4.3.1 Physiography

5.4.3.2 Settlements

5.5 Drought at 5,000 Years BP

5.5.1 Inside the Acacus

5.5.2 Drying and Abandonment of the ErgUan Kasa

5.5.3 Origin and Decline of the Tanezzuft Oasis

5.6 Conclusions

References

The Desertification of the Egyptian Sahara during the Holocene (the Last 10,000 years) and its influence on the Rise of Egyptian civilization

6.1 Introduction

6.2 The Present Situation

6.3 Climatic Change

6.4 Societal Changes

6.4.1 Westernmost Desert

6.4.2 Oases Belt

6.4.3 Nile Valley and Adjacent Areas

6.4.4 Eastern Desert

6.4.5 Cultural Summary

6.5 Integration of Climatic and Societal Changes

6.6 Conclusions

References

Paleoenvironments and Prehistory in the Holocene of SE Arabia

7.1 Introduction

7.2 The Area

7.2.1 Introduction

7.2.2 The Oman Mountains

7.2.3 Sand Deserts

7.2.4 Alluvial Fans and Gravels

7.2.5 Lakes

7.3 Environmental and Societal Changes

7.3.1 The Late Pleistocene and Early Holocene

7.3.1.1 Environmental Changes

7.3.1.2 Societal Changes

7.3.2 The Early Holocene (8,000–5,500 cal. year BP)

7.3.2.1 Environmental change

7.3.2.2 Societal Change

7.3.3 Mid-late Holocene (5,500–4,000 cal. year BP)

7.3.3.1 Environmental Change

7.3.3.2 Societal Change

7.4 Conclusions

References

Human Paleoecology in the Ancient Metal-Smelting and Farming Complex in the Wadi Faynan, SW Jordan, at the Desert Margin in the Middle East

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Materials and Methods

8.3 The Farmscape

8.4 Metal-Extraction Sites

8.5 Metal-Working Sites

8.6 Discussion

8.7 Conclusions

References

Empire and Environment in the Northern Fertile Crescent

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Case Studies: Settlement Dispersal and Soil Erosion

9.3 Case Studies: The Extension of Settlement into Climatically Marginal Areas

9.4 Case Studies: Water Supply and the Spread of Irrigation Technologies

9.5 Discussion

References

Part III The Mediterranean and European World–Warm-Temperate Mediterranean Lands

The Interplay between Environment and People from Neolithic to Classical Times in Greece and Albania

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Natural Development of the Postglacial Environment

10.2.1 Holocene Climatic Variability and the Evolution of the Vegetation Cover

10.2.2 Postglacial Evolution of the Vegetation Cover

10.3 The Coming of Agriculture and its Impact

10.3.1 Land Clearing, an Agricultural Practice Especially Visible after 4,500 Years BP

10.3.2 Holocene Climatic Variability

10.4 Changes over the Last Millennium

10.4.1 Catastrophic Events

10.4.2 Climatic Changes

10.4.3 Consequences of Socioeconomic and Historic Change

10.5 Conclusion

References

The Nuragic People: Their Settlements, Economic Activities and Use of the Land, Sardinia, Italy

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Geology and Geomorphology of Sardinia

11.3 The Nuragic Civilisation

11.3.1 Early Middle Bronze Age

11.3.2 Late Middle to Recent Bronze Age

11.3.3 Final Bronze Age–Early Iron Age

11.3.4 End of the Nuragic Age (Phoenician Influence and then Conquest of the Island)

11.4 Distribution of the Different Types of Settlements in the Various Landscapes

11.4.1 Mountainous Landscape

11.4.2 Plateau Landscapes

11.4.3 Hilly Landscapes

11.4.4 Lowland Landscapes

11.4.5 Coastal Landscape

11.5 Case Studies

11.5.1 The Tirso Middle Valley

11.5.2 Sinis Peninsula

11.6 Discussion

11.7 Conclusions

References

Floods, Mudflows, Landslides: Adaptation of Etruscan–Roman Communities to Hydrogeological Hazards in the Arno River Catchment (Tuscany, Central Italy)

12.1 Introduction

12.2 Regional Setting

12.3 Methods

12.4 Case Studies

12.4.1 Terminal Reach of the Arno River: The Roman Fluvial Harbour of S. Rossore, Near Pisa

12.4.1.1 General Setting

12.4.1.2 Description, Stratigraphy, and Paleoenvironment of the Site

12.4.2 Middle Reach of the Arno River: The Etruscan Town of Gonfienti, Near Prato

12.4.2.1 General Setting

12.4.2.2 Description, Stratigraphy and Paleoenvironment of the Site

12.4.3 Upstream Reach of the Arno River: The Etruscan Sacred Site of Lago Degli Idoli, Falterona Mt

12.4.3.1 General Setting

12.4.3.2 Description, Stratigraphy and Paleoenvironment of the Site

12.5 Community Adaptability

References

Landscape Influences on the Development of the Medieval–Early Renaissance City-states of Pisa, Florence, and Siena, Italy

13.1 The Physical Setting

13.1.1 Landform

13.1.2 Significant Geological Features

13.1.3 Climate

13.1.4 Hydrology

13.2 The Overall Human Dimension

13.2.1 Malaria

13.2.2 Bubonic Plague

13.3 The Three Cities: Pisa, Florence, Siena

13.3.1 Pisa

13.3.2 Florence (Firenze)

13.3.3 Siena

13.4 Synthesis

References

Paleo-Hazards in the Coastal Mediterranean: A Geoarchaeological Approach

14.1 Slow Postglacial Sea-Level Rise in the Coastal Mediterranean

14.2 Rapid Sea-Level Rise and Paleohazards

14.3 Hypersedimentation and Coastal Deformation

14.3.1 Delta Scale

14.3.2 Harbour Basin Scale

14.3.2.1 Why Dredge?

14.3.2.2 Where and When?

14.3.2.3 How?

14.4 Human Impacts

14.5 Conclusion

References

Mount Etna, Sicily: Landscape Evolution and Hazard Responses in the Pre-industrial Era

15.1 The Ugly Picture in the “Frame of Gold”

15.2 The Uniqueness of the Etna Region

15.2.1 Adjustments to Environmental and Economic Factors

15.2.2 Adjustments to Hazards

15.3 Conclusion: Landscape and Hazard Response Today

References

Part IV The Mediterranean and European World–Cool-Temperate European Lands

Romanian Carpathian Landscapes and Cultures

16.1 Introduction

16.1.1 The Physical Environment

16.1.2 The Historical Contest

16.2 From Populated Lower Lands to the Conquest of the Mountains

16.2.1 Brasov Depression

16.2.2 Fagaras Depression

16.2.3 Maramures Depression

16.2.4 Hateg Depression

16.3 Short History of Romanian Carpathian Civilization

16.3.1 Geto-Dacian Culture

16.3.2 Daco-Roman Civilization

16.3.3 Civilization of the Middle Ages

16.4 Civilizations and Modifications to the Carpathian Landscapes

16.4.1 Wood Culture in the Romanian Carpathians

16.5 Conclusions

References

Sea-Level Rise and the Response of the Dutch People: Adaptive Strategies Based on Geomorphologic Principles Give Sustainable Solutions

17.1 Introducing the Challenge

17.1.1 The Roots of Our Conflict with the Sea

17.1.2 The Coast Line in Geomorphologic Perspective

17.2 The Problems

17.3 The Answers

17.3.1 First Strategy: Organizing the Defence

17.3.2 Second Strategy: Building Dikes to Keep the Water Out

17.3.3 Third Strategy: Pumping to Get Rid of the Excess of Water

17.3.4 Fourth Strategy: Strengthening the Dunes and Sand Nourishment

17.3.5 Fifth Strategy: Gaining New Land in the North Sea, the Seaward Option

17.4 The Future

References

Perception of Volcanic Eruptions in Iceland

18.1 Introduction

18.2 Volcanism in Historical Time

18.3 Imprint of Volcanism on Culture and Landscape

18.3.1 Perception of Volcanic Eruptions as Revealed by Historical Accounts

18.3.2 Impact of Historical Eruptions

18.4 Discussion

18.4.1 Perception of Volcanic Eruptions: Origin

18.4.2 Perception of Volcanic Eruptions: Communal Importance

18.4.3 Books of Fire

18.5 Conclusions

References

Part V South and East Asia

Holocene Environmental Changes and the Evolution of the Neolithic Cultures in China

19.1 Introduction

19.2 Environmental Changes During the Holocene in China

19.3 Relationship between Regional Environmental Changes and Evolution of the Neolithic Cultures in the Eastern and Central Parts of China

19.3.1 The Zhongyuan Region

19.3.2 The Haidai Region

19.3.3 The Gansu-Qinghai Region

19.3.4 The Western Liao River Region

19.3.5 The Middle Yangtze River Region

19.3.6 The Lower Yangtze River Region

19.4 Summary

References

Landscape and Subsistence in Japanese History

20.1 Introduction

20.2 Historical Context of Landscape Exploitation

20.3 Prehistoric Hunting and Gathering

20.4 Identity of the Agriculturalists

20.5 Plains Development and Paddy Field Landscapes

20.6 Dry-Field Cultivation

20.7 Agriculture Past, Present and Future

20.8 Conclusions

References

Evolution of Hydraulic Societies in the Ancient Anuradhapura Kingdom of Sri Lanka

21.1 Introduction

21.2 Natural Setting

21.2.1 Geology and Geomorphology

21.2.2 Soils

21.2.3 Climate

21.2.4 Flora and Fauna

21.3 Historical Synopsis

21.3.1 Paleolithic (Old Stone Age)

21.3.2 Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age)

21.3.3 Neolithic (New Stone Age)

21.3.4 Early Iron Age

21.3.5 Historic Period

21.4 The Water Resource

21.5 Irrigation and Agriculture

21.5.1 Water Management in Paddy Cultivation

21.5.2 Rain-Fed Cultivation

21.5.3 Sustainability

21.6 Discussion

21.7 Conclusions

Reference

Disease in History: The Case of the Austronesian Expansion in the Pacific

22.1 Introduction

22.2 Malaria in the Western Pacific Islands

22.2.1 Thalassaemia

22.2.2 Haemoglobin Variants

22.3 Glucose-6-Phosphate Dehydrogenase (G6PD) Deficiency

22.3.1 Tumour Necrosis Factor-Alpha (TNF-a)

22.3.2 Southeast Asian Ovalocytosis

22.4 Conclusions

22.5 Future Research

References

Part VI Central and North America

Farms and Forests: Spatial and Temporal Perspectives on Ancient Maya Landscapes

23.1 Introduction

23.2 Environment and Cultural History

23.2.1 The Maya Lowlands Environment

23.2.2 Cultural History

23.2.3 Environmental Change

23.3 Preclassic Landscapes

23.3.1 Lake Tamarindito

23.3.2 Mirador Basin

23.3.3 La Milpa

23.3.4 San Bartolo and Xultun

23.4 Early Classic

23.4.1 Tamarindito: Landscape-Modification and Urban Agriculture

23.4.2 Dzibanché: Urbanization in a Wetland Setting

23.4.3 The Curious Case of Chunchucmil

23.5 Late Classic

23.5.1 Coba

23.5.2 Caracol: Garden City Extraordinaire

23.5.3 Tikal: Agroforestry and Temples

23.5.4 La Milpa: Late Glory, Rapid Decline

23.5.5 Dos Pilas: Urban Predator

23.6 Terminal Classic

23.6.1 The Decline of the Puuc Cities and the Rise of Uxmal

23.6.2 Successful Adaptations to Large Scale Environmental Changes Around Blue Creek

23.7 The Postclassic and Beyond

23.8 Discussion

References

Water Follows the People: Analysis of Water Use in the Western Great Plains and Rocky Mountains of Colorado, USA

24.1 The Drylands of Colorado: Regional Setting

24.2 The Water Rush

24.3 Consequences of the Water Rush: Physical and Ecological Changes in Rivers

24.3.1 Historical Changes in Mountain Streams

24.3.2 Historical Changes in Plains Streams

24.4 The Contemporary Situation in the Drylands of Colorado

24.5 The Future

24.6 Conclusions

References

Frozen Coasts and the Development of Inuit Culture in the North American Arctic

25.1 Introduction

25.2 Background

25.2.1 The Land

25.2.2 The Coasts

25.2.3 Ethnography

25.3 Archaeological Sequence

25.4 Cultures and the Landscape

25.4.1 The Development of a Frozen Coast Adaptation

25.4.1.1 Inhabiting Coastal Areas

25.4.1.2 Hunting Sea Mammals

25.4.1.3 Hunting Sea Mammals from Boats

25.4.1.4 Breathing Hole Sealing

25.4.1.5 Living on the Sea Ice

25.5 Landscape and Ideology

25.6 Change in the Arctic Coastal Landscape

25.7 Conclusion

References

Glossary

Index

Color Plate Section