INTRODUCTION

THE WHOLE COURSE OF history is very conveniently divided into three periods—the Ancient, the Mediaeval, and the Modern. Generally, fixed dates have been assigned for the beginning and end of each of these. They have then been further divided and subdivided, and each division has received a particular name. While this has been more or less convenient and justifiable, the divisions have often been treated so mechanically as to make a totally wrong impression, especially on the minds of students who are just beginning the study ; for if there is anything that is firmly held by all good historians to-day, it is the continuity of history. There are no real breaks in its course. Every age is a preparation for, and an introduction to, the next. One period grows into another so gradually and naturally that the people who live in the time of transition are often unconscious of the fact that a new period is beginning. Certain events may well be said to be epoch-making, but in spite of that, their full effect is not felt at once. They slowly modify the existing order of things, gradually displacing the old by the new. The world is never actually revolutionized in a day.

However, it is not wrong to separate history into such periods, for different interests prevail at different times, and, therefore, one period may have a very different character from that of another. But in making all such divisions two things ought to be carefully guarded against : fixed boundaries should not be assigned to them, and they should not be treated as if their predominant interest were their only interest. No one interest can absorb the whole life of a period. For several centuries the life of Europe has been too complex to admit of its being adequately treated from only one point of view.

The terms “ Mediaeval “ and “ Middle Age “ have been used because of their convenience. The invasions of the barbarians which began on a grand scale in the fourth century brought about the great change which was the beginning of the Middle Age. Its end is not perhaps so easily determined, but the period from 1450 to 1550 is marked by such movements as the great religious revolution, which involved all western Europe and was productive of many changes, the growth of absolutism in Europe, the changes in the practical government of many of the countries, the birth of political science, the multiplication of international relations, and the extension of industry and commerce, so that we may safely say that the Middle Age should end somewhere about that time. At any rate a convenient place may there be found where one may stop and mark the failing of old, and the appearance of new, tendencies and characteristics.

A comparison of the map of Europe in the fourth century of our era with that of the same country in the sixteenth century will give the best idea of the changes that took place there during the Middle Age. Such a comparison would suggest that all these changes could be grouped under four heads, namely : those in the political system, in language, in religion, and in civilization.

The first map shows but two grand divisions : the Roman empire and the barbarians. On the second, the barbarians have almost disappeared, and the empire, while it has a nominal existence, is not at all what it was. In its stead and in the place of the barbarians, there are many separate and independent states and different nations. One asks instinctively : What has become of the empire ? Where are the barbarians ? How did these new states arise ? What is the origin of these new nationalities ?

The linguistic changes suggested by the maps are quite as striking. Latin and Greek were the only languages in existence in Europe in the earlier time. The rude dialects of the barbarians were not regarded as languages, and were unfit for literary purposes. In the sixteenth century Greek was spoken in a limited territory, and Latin had become the language of the educated only, while the barbarian tongues had developed into literary languages.

Religiously, the changes are sweeping. At the beginning of the fourth century Europe was still prevailingly heathen. Christianity was widely spread, but its adherents were largely in the minority. In the sixteenth century, however, heathenism was nominally, at least, almost destroyed in Europe. In its stead there was Christianity in two great types : the Roman Catholic and the Greek, while a third new type, to be known as Protestantism, was about to be produced. Besides Christianity we find a part of Europe under the domination of Mohammedanism. How were the barbarians of Europe Christianized, we ask ? How were the different types of Christianity produced ? What separated the Greek from the Latin Church ? What was the origin of Mohammedanism ? What are its tenets and character ? How did it spread, and what has been its history ? What influence has it had on Europe ? And what have been the relations between Christianity and Mohammedanism ?

The changes in civilization were also radical. Civilization had passed far beyond the Rhine and the Danube, and there were already indications that its centre was soon to be changed from the south to the north. Italy, Spain, and southern France were still in advance in the sixteenth century; but England, northern France, and Germany were showing the characteristics which should eventually enable them to assume the leadership in art, science, literature, manufactures, and in nearly all that goes to make up the highest and best civilization. Here, too, questions arise. What did the rest of Europe receive from Greece and Rome? How was this inheritance transmitted ? How has it been increased and modified? How were the barbarians influenced by the art, literature, architecture, law, customs, modes of thought, and life of the Greeks and Romans? What new ideas and fresh impulses have been given by the various barbarian peoples that have successively been brought in as factors in the progress and development of Europe?

The Middle Age is the birth-period of the modern states of Europe. We shall study the successive periods of decay and revival in the empire; its ineffectual efforts to carry on the work of Rome in destroying the sense of difference in race, and to make all Europe one people ; and its bitter struggle with its new rival, the papacy, which ended practically in the ruin of both. We shall follow the barbarians in their migrations and invasions, and watch them as they form new states and slowly learn of Rome the elements of civilization. We shall see them come to national self-consciousness, exhibiting all the signs of a proud national sense, gradually but stubbornly resisting the interference of both emperor and pope in their affairs, and finally, throwing off all allegiance to both, becoming fully independent and acknowledging their responsibility to no power outside of themselves. Along with this national differentiation goes the development of the barbarian dialects into vigorous languages, each characteristic of the people to which it belongs.

We shall study the spread of Christianity, its ideals and its two most important institutions, monasticism and papacy. The monks of the west played a most important part in Christianizing and civilizing the peoples of Europe, and the bishops of Rome came to look upon themselves as the successors, not only of Peter, but also of the Caesars, claiming all power, both spiritual and temporal. The Church occupies, therefore, a prominent place in the history of the Middle Age.

Mohammedanism was for some time a formidable opponent of Christianity even in Europe. It set for itself the task of conquering the world. It made many determined efforts to establish itself firmly in Europe. The eastern question was an old one, even in the Middle Age, and the invasions of the Mohammedans into Europe and the counter-invasions of the Christians (the crusades) are all so many episodes in its history.

By invading and settling in the empire the barbarians came under the schooling of the Romans. They destroyed much, but they also learned much. The elements of the Graeco-Roman civilization were preserved ; its art, laws, and ideas were slowly adopted and modified by the invading peoples. We shall see how this rich legacy was preserved and gradually made the property of all the peoples of Europe, and we shall study the progress which they have made in civilization.

These are some of the problems with which the history of the Middle Age is concerned ; they will be treated in their appropriate places. We shall first take a kind of inventory of the factors involved, and these are Europe (the land itself in its physical and climatic features) and its peoples.

The general contour of Europe has greatly influenced its history. It is, therefore, necessary to study its mountain systems, its plains, its coast and river systems, and its climate.

On the east, and coinciding in general with the boundary between Asia and Europe, are the Ural Mountains. They, with the Caucasus range between the Black and Caspian Seas, form a barrier to easy communication between the east and the west, and so have forced travel and commerce, as well as invading peoples and armies, to follow certain well-defined routes. The Alps and the Pyrenees have served much the same purpose in the south. They have prevented the fusion of the peoples to the north with those to the south, and have made futile all the many attempts to bring and keep them under one government. They have played important parts in the differentiation, spread, and development of the various nations about them. Their passes being few and difficult, they have hindered intercourse and have prevented interference, and so each people has been left...