American Trypanosomiasis - Chagas Disease One Hundred Years of Research

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American Trypanosomiasis Chagas Disease: One Hundred Years of Research

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Contents

Preface

List of Contributors

Part 1 General Aspects

Chapter 1 History of the Discovery of American Trypanosomiasis (Chagas Disease)

1.1 A Beautiful History of Life and Work

1.2 The History of a Significant Discovery

1.3 Salvador Mazza: The History of His Knowledge of the Disease

1.4 Cecilio Romaña: His Contribution to the Identification of the Disease

1.5 First Evidence of Trypanosomiasis Americana (Chagas Disease) in Various Countries of Latin America

1.6 Chagas Disease 100 Years after the Discovery

Chapter 2 Chagas Disease in Pre-Colombian Civilizations

2.1 Introduction

2.2 The Parasite Transmission Cycle

2.3 Insect Vectors Associated with the Human Habitats

2.4 Historical Overview

2.5 Pre-Hispanic Settlements in Areas of Transmission of T. cruzi

2.6 Oral Infection by T. cruzi

2.7 Evidence of Human T. cruzi Infection in Pre-Colombian Civilizations

Chapter 3 Social and Medical Aspects: Morbidity and Mortality in General Population

3.1 Introduction

3.2 General Frame and Costs of HCD

3.3 The Medical Burden of HCD in Endemic and Nonendemic Areas

3.4 The Particular Question of Specific Treatment of Chagas Disease

3.5 Some Social Remarks Concerning the Control of HCD

3.6 Final Remarks

Chapter 4 Current Trends and Future Prospects for Control of Chagas Disease

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Modes of Transmission

4.3 Methods and Measurement of Epidemiological Trends in the Continent from 1980 to 2006

4.4 Feasibility of Interruption of Transmission

4.5 Current Control Programs

4.6 Economic Impact

4.7 Epidemiological Impact in the Region

4.8 Initiative of the Southern Cone Countries: Epidemiological Trends

4.9 Initiative of the Andean Countries: Epidemiological Trends

4.10 Initiative of the Central American Countries: Epidemiological Trends

4.11 Amazon Initiative

4.12 Epidemiological Impact

4.13 Future Challenges

Chapter 5 Geographical Distribution of Chagas Disease

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Vector Phylogeography and Ecology

5.3 Parasite Phylogeography and Ecology

5.4 Vector–Parasite–Host Interactions and Implications for Chagas Disease Distribution

5.5 Assessment of Regions Affected by Chagas Disease

Part 2 Insect Vectors

Chapter 6 Classification and Phylogeny of the Triatominae

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Subfamily: Triatominae

6.3 Concept of Species

6.4 Examples of Specific Questions

6.5 Conclusions

6.6 Recommendations

Chapter 7 Biology of Triatominae

7.1 Introduction

7.2 General Biology of Vectors

7.3 Vectorial Capacity and Domesticity

7.4 Vector Control Strategy

Chapter 8 Population Genetics of Triatomines

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Hardy–Weinberg Equilibrium

8.3 Evolutionary Forces

8.4 Genetic Variation and Population Structure

8.5 Molecular Markers

8.6 Study Design and Marker Choice

8.7 Genetic Variation and Population Structure of R. prolixus, T. dimidiata, and T. infestans

8.8 Perspective and Future Directions

Chapter 9 Geographic Distribution of Triatominae Vectors in America

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Limitations of Sampling Methods to Estimate the Geographic Distribution of Triatominae

9.3 Pattern of Species Richness in the New World Triatominae

9.4 Distribution of Triatominae in the Americas

9.5 Environmental Variables as Indicators of Triatominae Geographic Distribution

9.6 Global Warming and Expansion of the Geographic Range of T. infestans

Chapter 10 Control Strategies Against Triatominae

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Elimination of Domestic Populations of Triatominae

10.3 Multinational Initiatives

10.4 The Beginning of the End?

10.5 Criteria for Stratification of Vector Control Priorities

10.6 Insecticide Resistance

10.7 The Political Commitment

Part 3 Non-Human Mammalian Hosts

Chapter 11 Domestic and Wild Mammalian Reservoirs

11.1 Introduction

11.2 The Complex T. cruzi Transmission Cycle

11.3 What Are the T. cruzi Reservoir Hosts?

11.4 Importance of Wild and Synanthropic Mammals on Public Health in Brazil

11.5 Domestic Animals

11.6 Importance of Infected Domestic Mammals on Public Health in Brazil

Chapter 12 Veterinary Aspects and Experimental Studies

12.1 Introduction

12.2 The Various Ways of Infection of Animals (and Humans)

12.3 The Problem of Diagnosis in Animals

12.4 Natural Infections in Domestic Animals and Livestock

12.5 Experimental Studies in Animal Models

12.6 Experimental Infections in Livestock

12.7 New Cycles Establish in the USA

12.8 Conclusions

Part 4 The Causative Agent: Trypanosoma cruzi

Chapter 13 Classification and Phylogeny of Trypanosoma cruzi

13.1 Application of Molecular Phylogenetics to the study of Trypanosome Taxonomy and Evolution

13.2 Origin of Trypanosomes—Relationship of T. cruzi with T. brucei

13.3 Relationships within the Genus Trypanosoma

13.4 Molecular Phylogenetics and Traditional Taxonomy of Mammalian Trypanosomes

13.5 The Main Groups of Trypanosomes Recognized in Molecular Phylogenetic Analyses

13.6 The T. cruzi Clade (Subgenus Schizotrypanum Chagas, 1909)

13.7 The Origin of the T. cruzi Clade

13.8 Outlook

Chapter 14 Biology of Trypanosoma cruzi and Biological Diversity

4.1 Introduction

14.2 Evolutionary Stages

14.3 Biological Cycle

14.4 Biological Diversity of T. cruzi

14.5 Maintaining of T. cruzi in the Laboratory

Chapter 15 Biochemistry of Trypanosoma cruzi

15.1 Introduction

15.2 The Need for Chemotherapy of Chagas Disease

15.3 Metabolic Pathways in T. cruzi That Could Provide Targets for Drugs Against Chagas Disease

15.4 Conclusions

Chapter 16 Ultrastructure of Trypanosoma cruzi and Its Interaction with Host Cells

16.1 Structural Organization of Trypanosoma cruzi

16.2 Fine Structure of the Interaction of T. cruzi with Host Cells

Chapter 17 Genetics of Trypanosoma cruzi

17.1 Nuclear Genome

17.2 Kinetoplast Genome

Chapter 18 Experimental and Natural Recombination in Trypanosoma cruzi

18.1 Introduction

18.2 Genetic Diversity of T. cruzi

18.3 Experimental Recombination

18.4 Recombination in Natural Populations

18.5 Conclusions and Future Research

Chapter 19 Reticulate Evolution in Trypanosoma cruzi: Medical and Epidemiological Implications

19.1 Introduction

19.2 An Indispensable Recall of Evolutionary Genetics

19.3 The Results: How Does T. cruzi Evolve?

19.4 Conclusion: T. cruzi Is a Star in the Field of Pathogen Population Genetics

Chapter 20 Implications of Trypanosoma cruzi Intraspecific Diversity in the Pathogenesis of Chagas Disease

20.1 Introduction

20.2 The Genomic Paradigm

20.3 The Genetic Variability of T. cruzi

20.4 Major Lineages in T. cruzi

20.5 The Origin of the T. cruzi Hybrid Strains

20.6 Genotyping the Six Major Lineages of T. cruzi

20.7 Epidemiological and Clinical Implications of the Major T. cruzi Lineages

20.8 Clonal–Histotropic Model of Chagas Disease

20.9 The Role of Host Genetics

Part 5 Modes of Transmission

Chapter 21 Vector Transmission

21.1 How Does the Transmission Work?

21.2 Who Transmits the Parasite?

21.3 Where Does the Transmission Occur?

21.4 The Perception of Vectors and a Need for Education

Chapter 22 Maternal–Fetal Transmission of Trypanosoma cruzi

22.1 From Maternal–Fetal Transmission of Trypanosoma cruzi to Congenital Chagas Disease: Definitions and Limits

22.2 Epidemiological Aspects of Congenital Infection with T. cruzi

22.3 Placental Responses to T. cruzi Infection

22.4 Routes of Maternal–Fetal Transmission of T. cruzi

22.5 Timing of Maternal–Fetal Transmission of T. cruzi

22.6 Factors Involved in Transplacental Transmission and Development of T. cruzi Infection in Fetuses/Newborns

22.7 T. cruzi Vertical Transmission in Other Mammals and Experimental Models

22.8 Clinical Manifestations and Long-Term Consequences of Congenital Chagas Disease

22.9 Laboratory Diagnosis of Congenital Infection with T. cruzi

22.10 Treatment of Congenital Infection with T. cruzi

22.11 Prevention and Control of Congenital T. cruzi Infection

22.12 Conclusions

Chapter 23 Other Forms of Transmission

23.1 Introduction

23.2 Blood Bank Transmission

23.3 Organ Transplants

23.4 Laboratory-Acquired Contamination

23.5 Oral Transmission

Part 6 Immunology: Host–Parasite Interaction

Chapter 24 Protective Host Response to Parasite and Its Limitations

24.1 Introduction

24.2 Innate Immune Response in T. cruzi Infection

24.3 Adaptive Immune Response: Induction, Characterization, and Role of the T-Cell Response

24.4 Adaptive Immune Response: The B Cell Response and Production of Antibodies

24.5 Deregulations of T and B Lymphocyte Responses

24.6 Escape Mechanisms of T. cruzi from the Immune Responses

24.7 Integrated Dynamic of the Immune Response

24.8 Conclusion

Chapter 25 Pathological Consequences of Host Response to Parasite

25.1 Introduction

25.2 Pathological Disorders in Humans

25.3 The Mouse Model of T. cruzi Infection

25.4 Strains of Parasite and Pathology

25.5 Perspectives

Chapter 26 Human Genetic Susceptibility to Chagas Disease

26.1 Introduction of Key Concepts

26.2 General Recalls about Research on Human Genetic Susceptibility to Infectious Diseases

26.3 State-of-the Art with Chagas Disease

26.4 Conclusion: Perspectives

Part 7 Pathology, Diagnosis, and Treatment

Chapter 27 Clinical Phases and Forms of Chagas Disease

27.1 Introduction

27.2 Acute Phase

27.3 Chronic Phase

27.4 Concluding Remarks

Chapter 28 Diagnosis of Trypanosoma cruzi Infection

28.1 Introduction

28.2 History of Diagnosis in Chagas Disease

28.3 Diagnosis of T. cruzi Infection

28.4 Parasitological Tests

28.5 Serological Tests

28.6 Blood Banks, Serology, and Quality Control for Chagas Disease

28.7 Application of Diagnostic Tests in Different Contexts

28.8 Quality Control in Serology

28.9 Prophylaxis to Avoid Accidental Contamination

28.10 Future Perspectives

Chapter 29 AIDS and Chagas Disease

29.1 Introduction

29.2 Epidemiology of Chagas Disease in Latin America and Argentina

29.3 Natural History of Chagas Disease

29.4 Pathogenic Mechanisms of Chagas Disease Reactivation in AIDS Patients

29.5 AIDS and Chagas Disease

29.6 Conclusion

Chapter 30 Treatment of Chagas Disease

30.1 Introduction

30.2 Drugs Which Inhibit Protein or Purine Synthesis

30.3 Inhibitors of Ergoesterol

30.4 Ofloxacine

30.5 Inhibitors of Trypanothione Metabolism

30.6 Inhibitors of Cysteine Protease (CPI)

30.7 Inhibitors of Phospholipids

30.8 Inhibitors of Pyrophosphate Metabolism

30.9 Natural Drugs

30.10 Other Drugs

30.11 Treatment of Human Infection

30.12 Evaluation and Follow-Up of Specific Therapy

30.13 Resistance of T. cruzi to Drugs

30.14 Critical Comments

Chapter 31 Vaccine Development for Chagas Disease

31.1 Introduction

31.2 Immune Mechanisms Associated with Protection Against T. cruzi Infection

31.3 DNA Vaccination in Experimental Models of T. cruzi Infection

31.4 Basic Laboratory Studies on Premunition Against T. cruzi

31.5 Field Studies on Premunition in Guinea Pigs and Dogs

31.6 Generation of Attenuated Parasites by Genetic Manipulation and Their Use as Potential Vaccines Against Chagas Disease

31.7 Final Considerations