Essentials of Processing Assessment

Essentials of Processing Assessment

Contents

Series Preface

Acknowledgments

One: Introduction and Overview

CHANGES TO ESSENTIALS OF PROCESSING ASSESSMENT

DEFINITIONS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL PROCESSES AND LEARNING

Psychological Processes and Cognitive Processes

Psychological Processes and Cognitive Abilities

Psychological Processes and Intelligence

Psychological Processes and Skills

Psychological Processes and Learning

THEORIES RELATED TO PSYCHOLOGICAL PROCESSING

Information Processing Theory

Lurian and PASS Theories

Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) Theory

School Neuropsychological Conceptual Model

SPECIFIC LEARNING DISABILITY IDENTIFICATION MODELS

PATTERN OF STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES

THE DISCREPANCY-CONSISTENCY APPROACH

THE CONCORDANCE-DISCORDANCE MODEL

CHC APPROACH

THE NEED FOR AN EXPLICIT THEORY OF PROCESSING AND LEARNING

A THEORY OF PSYCHOLOGICAL PROCESSING AND LEARNING

Psychological Processing Aptitudes

Definitions of Terms

AN INTEGRATED SLD IDENTIFICATION MODEL

Two: Psychological Processes and Learning

DESCRIPTIONS OF THE PSYCHOLOGICAL PROCESSES

Attention

Auditory Processing

Executive Functions

Metacognition

Planning

Fine Motor Processing

Sensorimotor

Graphomotor

Fluid Reasoning

Long-Term Recall

Episodic Memory

Semantic Memory

Encoding

Storage

Consolidation

Retrieval

Metamemory and Strategy Use

Oral Language Processing

Phonological Processing

Processing Speed

Visual-Spatial Processing

Working Memory

Phonological Short-Term Memory

Visual-Spatial Short-Term Memory

Verbal Working Memory

Visual-Spatial Working Memory

Executive Working Memory

OTHER NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL PROCESSES

Successive/Sequential Processing

Simultaneous Processing

RELATIONS AMONG THE PROCESSES

Working Memory Cluster

Executive Functions Cluster

Oral Language Cluster

Fine Motor and Visual-Spatial Processing

General Processing Ability

DEVELOPMENT OF PROCESSES

PSYCHOLOGICAL PROCESSES AND ACADEMIC LEARNING

Basic Reading Skills

Reading Fluency

Reading Comprehension

Mathematics Calculation

Mathematics Problem Solving

Written Language

Oral Expression and Listening Comprehension

PROCESSING DEFICITS AND LEARNING DISABILITIES

Three: The Neuroanatomy of Psychological Processes

OVERVIEW OF BRAIN STRUCTURES AND FUNCTIONS RELATED TO SPECIFIC PROCESSES

Brain Cells

Hemispheres

Cerebral Cortex

The Four Main Lobes

Occipital Lobe

Temporal Lobe

Parietal Lobe

Frontal Lobe

Limbic System

Amygdala

Hippocampus

Other Relevant Brain Structures

Anterior Cingulate Cortex

Midbrain

Thalamus

Basal Ganglia

Corpus Striatum

Orbitofrontal Cortex

Supramarginal Gyrus

ATTENTION

AUDITORY PROCESSING

EXECUTIVE FUNCTIONS

FINE MOTOR

FLUID REASONING

LONG-TERM RECALL

Hippocampus

Other Neural Structures Involved in Long-Term Recall

ORAL LANGUAGE

PHONOLOGICAL PROCESSING

PROCESSING SPEED

VISUAL-SPATIAL PROCESSING

WORKING MEMORY

Phonological Short-Term Memory

Visuospatial Short-Term Memory

Executive Working Memory

Four: Strategies for Assessing Processing

MULTIDIMENSIONAL ASSESSMENT

THE HYPOTHESIS-TESTING APPROACH TO PROCESSING ASSESSMENT

Clarification of Presenting Problems

Generating Hypotheses

Hypotheses Involving Psychological Processes

Benefits and Concerns Regarding Hypothesis Testing

CROSS-BATTERY, SELECTIVE TESTING

Unique Aspects of the Psychological Processing Cross-Battery Approach

Cross-Battery Concerns

HOW TO SELECT SCALES, COMPOSITES, AND SUBTESTS

GUIDELINES THAT WERE USED IN SELECTING AND CATEGORIZING THE RECOMMENDED STANDARDIZED SCALES, COMPOSITES, AND SUBTESTS

Reliability And Validity

Evidence From Factor-Analytic Studies

Task Analysis of Subtest Demands

HOW TO USE THE PROCESSING ASSESSMENT PLANNER

Reviewing Records

Interviewing

Observations

Five: Assessing Processing With Cognitive Scales

THE WECHSLER SCALES

The WISC-IV

The WAIS-IV

The WPPSI-IV

Processes Measured by the Wechsler Scales

Fluid Reasoning

Processing Speed

Visual-Spatial Processing

Working Memory

Interpretation of Wechsler Results

The General Ability Index

VCI Interpretation

PRI Interpretation

Processing Speed

Working Memory

Process Analysis

Strengths and Weaknesses as Measures of Processing

THE WISC-IV INTEGRATED

Processes Measured by the WISC-IV Integrated Supplement

Executive Functions

Processing Speed

Visual-Spatial Processing

Working Memory

Analysis and Interpretation of the Processing Results

Strengths and Weaknesses as a Measure of Processing

STANFORD-BINET INTELLIGENCE SCALES, FIFTH EDITION (SB5)

Processes Measured by the Test

Fluid Reasoning

Visual-Spatial Processing

Working Memory

Interpretation of the Processing Components

Strengths and Weaknesses as a Measure of Processing

KAUFMAN ASSESSMENT BATTERY FOR CHILDREN, SECOND EDITION (KABC-II)

Processes Measured by the KABC-II

Fluid Reasoning

Long-Term Recall

Visual-Spatial Processing

Working Memory

Analysis and Interpretation of the Processing Components

Strengths and Weaknesses as a Measure of Processing

COGNITIVE ASSESSMENT SYSTEM, SECOND EDITION (CAS-II)

Processes Measured by the CAS

Attention

Executive Functions

Visual-Spatial Processing

Working Memory

Analysis and Interpretation of the Processing Composites

Strengths and Weaknesses as a Measure of Processing

WOODCOCK-JOHNSON III TESTS OF COGNITIVE ABILITIES (WJ III COG)

Processes Measured by the WJ III COG

Analysis and Interpretation of Results

Intra-Cognitive Discrepancies Analysis

Predicted Achievement-Achievement Discrepancies Analysis

Using the Processing Analysis Worksheet

Strengths and Weaknesses as a Measure of Processing

DIFFERENTIAL ABILITY SCALES, SECOND EDITION (DAS-II)

REYNOLDS INTELLECTUAL ASSESSMENT SCALES (RIAS)

Six: Assessing Memory

WORKING MEMORY ASSESSMENT

Planning a Working Memory Assessment

Selecting Composites and Subtests

Subtests from Cognitive Scales

Subtests From Memory Scales

Interviews

Observations

Student Classroom Behaviors

Classroom Teacher Behaviors

Behaviors During Testing

Rating Scales

Analysis and Interpretation of Test Results

A Standardized Working Memory Battery: The AWMA-2

LONG-TERM MEMORY ASSESSMENT

The Challenge of Testing Semantic Memory Functioning

Assessing Long-Term Memory Processes

Encoding

Consolidation

Retrieval

Planning a Long-Term Memory Assessment

Selecting Batteries and Subtests

Interviews

Metamemory Development and Strategy Use

Health and Developmental History

Classroom Observation

Academic Performance Data

Analysis and Interpretation of Results

Analyzing Encoding

Analyzing Consolidation

Analyzing Retrieval

STANDARDIZED LONG-TERM MEMORY BATTERIES

Children’s Memory Scale (CMS)

Test of Memory and Learning, Second Edition (TOMAL-2)

Wide Range Assessment of Memory and Learning, Second Edition (WRAML2)

Wechsler Memory Scale®, Fourth Edition (WMS®-IV)

Seven: The Children’s Psychological Processes Scale (CPPS)

OVERVIEW

STRUCTURE OF THE CPPS

General Processing Ability

Additional Processing Factors

Developmental Sequencing of Items

RELIABILITY

VALIDITY

Correlations With Achievement Test Scores

Correlations With Cognitive Test Scores

Correlations With a Measure of Executive Functions

Diagnostic Accuracy

HOW TO ADMINISTER AND SCORE THE CPPS

Completing the Online CPPS Teacher Rating Form

Generating the CPPS Report

HOW TO INTERPRET CPPS RESULTS

T-Scores and Percentiles

W-Scores

Discrepancy Scores

INTERPRETATIVE STEPS FOR THE CPPS

Step 1: Interpret General Processing Ability (GPA)

Step 2: Evaluate and Interpret Clinical Groupings of Subscales

Step 3: Interpret Individual Subscales

Step 4: Interpret Intra-Individual Strengths and Weaknesses

Step 5: Determine Base Rate (Optional)

Step 6: Interpret Responses to Individual Items

Step 7: Identify Psychological Processes for Intervention

Step 8: Identify Cognitive Processes for Additional Assessment

Step 9: Compare Results from Multiple Raters

Step 10: Consider Relations With Achievement Scores

SLD DETERMINATION

CLINICAL APPLICATIONS OF THE CPPS

Diagnosis of Processing Disorders and SLD

Identification of Student Strengths and Weaknesses

Planning Cognitive Testing and Interventions

Screening

Executive Functions Screening

Memory Screening

Monitoring Progress

STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF THE CPPS

ILLUSTRATIVE CASE REPORT

Step 1: Interpret General Processing Ability

Step 2: Evaluate and Interpret Clinical Groupings of Subscales

Step 3: Interpret Individual Subscales

Step 4: Interpret Intra-Individual Strengths and Weaknesses

Step 5: Determine Base Rate

Step 6: Interpret Responses to Individual Items

Step 7: Identify Psychological Processes for Intervention

Step 8: Identify Cognitive Processes for Additional Assessment

Step 9: Compare Results From Multiple Raters

Step 10: Consider Relations With Achievement Scores

Case Study Diagnosis

Eight: Using Scales Designed to Assess Processing

NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS

The NEPSY-II: A Developmental Neuropsychological Assessment

Analysis and Interpretation of Results

Strengths and Weaknesses as a Measure of Processing

Delis-Kaplan Executive Function System (D-KEFS)

RATING SCALES

CHILDREN’S PSYCHOLOGICAL PROCESSES SCALE (CPPS)

Psychological Processing Checklist, Revised (PPC-R)

Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF)

Comprehensive Executive Function Inventory (CEFI)

Delis-Rating of Executive Function (D-REF)

Barkley Deficits in Executive Functioning Scale?hildren and Adolescents (BDEFS-CA)

Behavior Assessment System for Children, Second Edition (BASC-2)

NONVERBAL SCALES

Leiter International Performance Scale, Third Edition (Leiter-3)

Universal Nonverbal Intelligence Test (UNIT)

Wechsler Nonverbal Scale of Ability (WNV)

DIRECT MEASURES OF ATTENTION

Integrated Visual and Auditory (IVA) Continuous Performance Test

Conners’ Continuous Performance Test II, Version 5 (CPT II V.5)

AUDITORY PROCESSING SCALES

Auditory Processing Abilities Test (APAT)

Developmental Test of Auditory Perception (DTAP)

SCAN-C-R: Test of Auditory Processing Disorders in Children—Revised

Test of Auditory Processing Skills, Third Edition (TAPS-3)

FINE MOTOR PROCESSING SCALES

Beery-Buktenica Test of Visual-Motor Integration, Sixth Edition (Beery VMI)

Bender Visual-Motor Gestalt Test, Second Edition (Bender-Gestalt II)

Dean-Woodcock Sensory-Motor Battery (DWSMB)

ORAL LANGUAGE PROCESSING SCALES

Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals, Fifth Edition (CELF-5)

Comprehensive Assessment of Spoken Language (CASL)

Illinois Test of Psycholinguistic Abilities, Third Edition (ITPA-3)

Structured Photographic Expressive Language Test, Third Edition (SPELT-3)

Test of Auditory Comprehension of Language, Third Edition (TACL-3)

Test of Language Development, Fourth Edition (TOLD-4), Primary and Intermediate

Oral and Written Language Scales, Second Edition (OWLS-II)

PHONOLOGICAL PROCESSING SCALES

Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing, Second Edition (CTOPP-2)

Test of Phonological Awareness, Second Edition: PLUS (TOPA-2+)

The Phonological Awareness Test, Second Edition (PAT 2)

Woodcock Reading Mastery Test, Third Edition (WRMT-III)

VISUAL-SPATIAL PROCESSING

Motor-Free Visual Perception Test, Third Edition (MVPT-3)

Test of Visual-Perceptual Skills, Third Edition (TVPS-3)

GENERAL PROCESSING SCALES

Detroit Tests of Learning Aptitude, Fourth Edition (DTLA-4)

Processing Assessment of the Learner, Second Edition (PAL-II)

Nine: Analyzing Test Results and Determining SLD

GENERAL RECOMMENDATIONS FOR ANALYZING AND INTERPRETING TEST SCORES

Profile Analysis

Concerns

Recommendations

Contrasting Normative and Intra-Individual Weaknesses

Statistical Significance

Unitary versus Nonunitary Composites

Base Rates of Occurrence

Hypothesis Testing

Clinical Interpretation

Weaknesses, Deficits, and SLD

Processing Strengths and Assets

ANALYZING CROSS-BATTERY TEST SCORES

Step 1. Select and Enter Scales, Composites, and Subtests

Step 2. Calculate Standard Scores

Step 3. Calculate Clinical Composite Scores

Step 4. Determine Confidence Intervals

Step 5. Compute the Cross-Battery Mean

Step 6. Compute the Discrepancies

Step 7. Determine Normative Strengths and Weaknesses

Step 8. Determine Intra-Individual Strengths and Weaknesses

Step 9. Determine Deficits and Assets

Step 10. Examine Process Pairs for Significance

Step 11. Determine Whether Each Composite Is Unitary

Step 12. Examine Processing Clusters (Optional)

Step 13. Examine Subtests With Exceptionally Low or High Scores (Optional)

THE PSYCHOLOGICAL PROCESSING ANALYZER

SLD IDENTIFICATION PROCEDURES

Procedures

Additional Considerations

COMMUNICATING PROCESSING ASSESSMENT RESULTS

Oral Presentations

Guidelines for Writing a Processing Report

Ten: Evidence-Based Interventions for Psychological Processing Deficits

TYPES OF INTERVENTIONS

Remedial Interventions

Compensatory Interventions

THE IMPORTANCE OF EARLY INTERVENTIONS

SELECTING AND DESIGNING INTERVENTIONS

SETTING GOALS AND MEASURING PROGRESS

Measuring Progress

Goal Attainment Scaling

Modifying the Intervention

FACTORS RELATED TO SUCCESS

INTERVENTIONS FOR SPECIFIC PROCESSES

INTERVENTIONS FOR ATTENTION

Self-Monitoring

Attention Training

INTERVENTIONS FOR AUDITORY PROCESSING

Auditory Trainers

Fast ForWord

INTERVENTIONS FOR EXECUTIVE FUNCTIONS

Metacognitive Strategies

Planning

INTERVENTIONS FOR FINE MOTOR PROCESSING

Handwriting Practice

Training Software

INTERVENTIONS FOR FLUID REASONING

Reasoning Training

Computer-Based Training

INTERVENTIONS FOR LONG-TERM RECALL

Instructional Procedures

Elaboration

Review Techniques

Memory Strategies

Dual Encoding

Semantic Clustering

Mnemonics

Keyword

Loci

INTERVENTIONS FOR ORAL LANGUAGE

INTERVENTIONS FOR PHONOLOGICAL PROCESSING

Rhyming

Blending

INTERVENTIONS FOR PROCESSING SPEED

Speed Training

Video Games

INTERVENTIONS FOR VISUAL-SPATIAL PROCESSING

INTERVENTIONS FOR WORKING MEMORY

Reducing Cognitive Load

Modifying Instruction

Reducing Internal Processing

Manipulating Content

Strategy Training

Rehearsal

Chunking

Exercises

N-Back

Arithmetic Flash Cards

Accommodations

Eleven: Illustrative Case Study

PRESENTING PROBLEMS

BACKGROUND INFORMATION

PLANNING THE ASSESSMENT

BEHAVIOR OBSERVATIONS

ANALYSIS OF TEST SCORES

Nonunitary Composites

Clinical Clusters

Lowest and Highest Subtest Scores

Memory Analysis

Hypothesis Testing

INTERPRETATION SECTION OF THE REPORT

SLD DETERMINATION

INTERVENTIONS

Interventions Before the Evaluation and Special Education Placement

Interventions for Attention and Executive Functions

WORKING MEMORY INTERVENTIONS

Long-Term Recall Interventions

Oral Language Interventions

Intervention Outcomes

References

Annotated Bibliography

About the Author

Index

About the CD-ROM