Human Rights in the Prevention and Punishment of Terrorism - Commonwealth Approaches: The United Kingdom, Canada, Australia and New Zealand

Preface

Contents Overview

Contents

Table of Cases

Table of Treaties and Statutory Instruments

International Treaties

Domestic Statutory Instruments

Chapter 1: Introduction

Part I

Chapter

57

2.1 The Nature of Terrorism

2.1.1 Terrorism and Crime

2.1.2 Terrorism and Warfare

2.1.3 Features of Terrorist Conduct

2.1.4 The Ideological Nature of Terrorism

2.1.4.1 Secession

2.1.4.2 Insurgency and Regional Retribution

2.1.4.3 Islam and `the Global Jihad´

2.1.5 Rationalising a Distinct Approach to Terrorism

2.2 Reaching Consensus on a Legal Definition of Terrorism

2.2.1 Attempts to Define Terrorism

2.2.2 Objective Versus Subjective Definitions of the Term

2.2.3 International Conventions Relating to Terrorism

2.2.4 The Draft Comprehensive Convention on International Terrorism

2.2.5 United Nations High-Level Panel Definition of Terrorism

2.2.6 United Nations Resolutions on Terrorism

2.3 A Comprehensive, Concise, and Human Rights-Based Approach to Defining Terrorism

2.3.1 Links to Existing Operational Definitions (`Trigger Offences´)

2.3.2 Cumulative Characteristics of Conduct to Be Suppressed

2.3.3 Dealing with Threats of Terrorist Acts Outside the Scope of `Trigger Offences´

2.3.4 Conduct in Support of Terrorist Offences

2.3.5 Further Definitional Requirements of Criminal Proscriptions

2.3.6 Summary

2.4 Conclusions

References

Chapter

88

3.1 International Conventions Relating to Terrorism

3.1.1 Extant Conventions Related to Terrorism

3.1.1.1 Protection of Potential Targets: Conventions Relating to Civil Aviation

3.1.1.2 Protection of Potential Targets: Conventions Relating to Operations at Sea

3.1.1.3 Protection of Potential Targets: Conventions Relating to the Safety of Persons

3.1.1.4 Conventions Relating to the Suppression of the Means by Which Terrorist Acts Might Be Perpetrated or Facilitated

3.1.1.5 Offences Under the Universal Terrorism-Related Conventions

3.1.2 Draft Comprehensive Convention on International Terrorism

3.2 United Nations Action

3.2.1 Resolutions of the General Assembly

3.2.2 Resolutions of the Security Council

3.2.2.1 Resolutions Concerning Pan Am 103

3.2.2.2 Resolution 1267 (1999)

3.2.2.3 Resolution 1373 (2001)

3.2.2.4 Resolutions 1373 (2001) and 1456 (2003)

3.2.2.5 Resolution 1624 (2005)

3.2.3 The Status of Security Council Resolutions

3.2.4 Security Council Committees

3.2.4.1 Counter-Terrorism Committee

3.2.4.2 Al-Qa'ida and Taliban Sanctions Committee

3.2.4.3 Resolution 1540 Committee

3.2.4.4 Resolution 1566 Working Group

3.2.5 UN Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy

3.2.6 Capacity-Building and Technical Assistance by the UNODC Terrorism Prevention Branch

3.3 Customary International Law Relating to Counter-Terrorism

3.4 Regional and Multilateral Action Related to Countering Terrorism

3.4.1 Regional Action

3.4.2 Proliferation Security Initiative

3.5 Conclusions

References

Chapter

130

4.1 Is Counter-Terrorism Relevant for All States?

4.1.1 International and Regional Obligations

4.1.2 The Threat of Terrorism

4.1.2.1 Assessing the Threat of Terrorism

4.1.2.2 Terrorism in the South Pacific

4.1.3 Supporting an International Framework on Counter-Terrorism

4.1.4 Other Related National Interests

4.2 Mechanisms for the Implementation of International Obligations by the Case Study Countries

4.2.1 The Reception of Customary International Law Obligations

4.2.2 The Reception of Treaty Obligations

4.2.2.1 Treaty Action by the Executive

4.2.2.2 Parliament´s Role

4.2.2.3 Reception of Treaty Obligations by the Judiciary

4.2.3 Implementation of Security Council Resolutions

4.3 Implementation of International Counter-Terrorism Obligations by the Case Study Countries

4.3.1 Legislation

4.3.1.1 Terrorism-Related Offences

4.3.1.2 Curtailing Recruitment and Training

4.3.1.3 Preventing Public Provocation

4.3.2 Countering the Financing of Terrorism

4.3.3 Border Control

4.3.4 Domestic Security, Law Enforcement and International Cooperation

4.3.5 Emerging Trends in Legislative Responses to Terrorism

4.3.5.1 The Speed with Which Counter-Terrorist Legislation Has Been Enacted

4.3.5.2 Sunset Clauses and Review Mechanisms

4.3.5.3 The Extension of State Powers Through Counter-Terrorism Laws

4.4 Conclusions

References

Chapter 5: Counter-Terrorism Law in Australia

5.1 Implementation by Australia of the Universal Terrorism-Related Treaties

5.1.1 Crimes Act 1914 and Criminal Code Act 1995

5.1.1.1 Treaty Implementation

5.1.1.2 Definition of ``Terrorist Act´´

5.1.1.3 Listing of ``Terrorist Organisations´´

5.1.1.4 Offences Under the Criminal Code Act 1995

5.1.1.5 Special Measures: Control Orders and Preventive Detention

5.1.1.6 Prosecutions Under the Criminal Code Act

5.1.2 Crimes (Aviation) Act 1991

5.1.3 Crimes (Ships and Fixed Platforms) Act 1992

5.1.4 Legislation Concerning Hostage-Taking and Internationally Protected Persons

5.1.5 Nuclear Non-proliferation (Safeguards) Act 1987

5.1.6 Financial Transactions Reports Act 1998

5.1.7 Law and Justice Legislation Amendment (Marking of Plastic Explosives) Act 2006

5.1.8 Anti-Money Laundering and Counter-Terrorism Financing Act 2006

5.1.9 Legislation Concerning the Australian Security Intelligence Organisation

5.1.10 Review of Australia´s Counter-Terrorism Legislation

5.2 Implementation by Australia of Security Council Decisions

5.2.1 Criminal Code Act 1995 on Incitement and Sedition

5.2.2 Charter of the United Nations (Terrorism and Dealings with Assets) Regulations 2008

5.2.3 Charter of the United Nations (Sanctions - Al-Qaida and the Taliban) Regulations 2008

5.3 Summary and Conclusions on Australia´s Compliance with the International Framework for Countering Terrorism

5.3.1 Terrorism-Related Offences

5.3.2 Treaty Action and Implementation

5.3.3 Implementation of Security Council Resolutions

References

Chapter 6: Counter-Terrorism Law in Canada

6.1 Implementation by Canada of the Universal Terrorism-Related Treaties

6.1.1 Aeronautics Act 1985

6.1.2 Criminal Code 1985

6.1.3 Explosives Act 1985

6.1.4 Anti-terrorism Act 2001

6.1.4.1 Treaty Implementation

6.1.4.2 Definition of ``Terrorist Activity´´ and ``Terrorist Group´´

6.1.4.3 Offences Established by the Anti-terrorism Act

6.1.4.4 Prosecutions Under the Anti-terrorism Act

6.1.4.5 Entities Involved in or Facilitating Terrorist Activities

6.1.4.6 Freezing and Forfeiture of Property

6.1.4.7 Financial Transactions and Other Reporting

6.1.4.8 Special Powers

6.1.4.9 Review Mechanism and Sunset Clause

6.1.5 Immigration and Refugee Protection Act 2001

6.2 Implementation by Canada of Security Council Decisions

6.2.1 United Nations Al-Qaida and Taliban Regulations 1999

6.2.2 Regulations Establishing a List of Entities 2002

6.2.3 Regulations Implementing the United Nations Resolutions on the Suppression of Terrorism 2001

6.3 Summary and Conclusions on Canada´s Compliance with the International Framework for Countering Terrorism

6.3.1 Terrorism-Related Offences

6.3.2 Treaty Action and Implementation

6.3.3 Implementation of Security Council Resolutions

References

Chapter 7: Counter-Terrorism Law in New Zealand

7.1 Implementation by New Zealand of the Universal Terrorism-Related Treaties

7.1.1 Aviation Crimes Act 1972

7.1.2 The Crimes (International Protected Persons, United Nations and Associated Personnel, and Hostages) Act 1980

7.1.3 The Maritime Crimes Act 1999

7.1.4 Terrorism Suppression Act 2002

7.1.4.1 Treaty Implementation and the Process from Bill to the Current Act

7.1.4.2 Definition of ``Terrorist Act´´

7.1.4.3 Offences Under the Terrorism Suppression Act

7.1.4.4 Designation of Terrorist Entities

7.1.4.5 Freezing and Forfeiture of Terrorist Property

7.1.4.6 Financial Transactions Reporting

7.1.4.7 Review Mechanism

7.1.5 Counter-Terrorism Bill 2003

7.1.5.1 Treaty Implementation

7.1.5.2 Resolution 1373 Obligations and Investigative/Supplementary Powers

7.1.5.3 Offences, and Supplementary Powers, Under the Counter-Terrorism Bill

7.2 Implementation by New Zealand of Security Council Decisions

7.2.1 United Nations Sanctions (Al-Qaida and Taliban) Regulations 2007

7.2.2 United Nations Sanctions (Terrorism Suppression and Afghanistan Measures) Regulations 2001 and Amending Regulations

7.3 International Terrorism (Emergency Powers) Act 1987

7.3.1 Declaration of a State of Emergency

7.3.2 Definition of a Terrorist Emergency

7.3.3 Emergency Powers and Associated Offences

7.4 Other Legislation

7.5 Summary and Conclusions on New Zealand´s Compliance with the International Framework for Countering Terrorism

7.5.1 Terrorism-Related Offences

7.5.2 Treaty Action and Implementation

7.5.3 Implementation of Security Council Resolutions

References

Chapter 8: Counter-Terrorism Law in the United Kingdom

8.1 Implementation by the United Kingdom of the Universal Terrorism-Related Treaties

8.1.1 Legislation to Deal with Terrorist Bombings

8.1.1.1 Explosive Substances Act 1883

8.1.1.2 Biological Weapons Act 1974

8.1.1.3 Chemical Weapons Act 1996

8.1.2 Legislation to Deal with Aviation and Maritime Security

8.1.2.1 Civil Aviation Act 1982

8.1.2.2 Aviation Security Act 1982

8.1.2.3 Aviation and Maritime Security Act 1990

8.1.3 Legislation to Deal with the Protection of Persons

8.1.3.1 Internationally Protected Persons Act 1978

8.1.3.2 Taking of Hostages Act 1982

8.1.4 Nuclear Material (Offences) Act 1983

8.1.5 Terrorism Act 2000

8.1.5.1 Definition of ``Terrorism´´

8.1.5.2 Definition of ``Proscribed Organisations´´

8.1.5.3 Offences Under the Terrorism Act 2000

8.1.5.4 Freezing, Seizure and Forfeiture of Terrorist Property

8.1.5.5 Investigative Powers

8.1.5.6 Counter-Terrorist Powers

8.1.5.7 Special Measures for Northern Ireland

8.1.6 Anti-terrorism, Crime and Security Act 2001

8.1.6.1 The Now Repealed Part 4 on Immigration and Asylum Matters

8.1.6.2 Dealing with Terrorist Cash and Property

8.1.6.3 Offences Under the ATCS Act

8.1.7 Prevention of Terrorism Act 2005

8.1.8 Terrorism Act 2006

8.1.8.1 Offences Under the Terrorism Act 2006

8.1.8.2 Sentencing

8.1.9 Counter-Terrorism Act 2008

8.1.10 Operation of the UK´s Counter-Terrorism Laws

8.1.10.1 Review of Terrorism Legislation

8.1.10.2 Investigations and Prosecutions in the UK

8.2 Implementation by the United Kingdom of Security Council Decisions

8.2.1 Terrorism Act 2000

8.2.2 The Al-Qa´ida and Taliban (United Nations Measures) Order 2002

8.2.3 The Terrorism (United Nations Measures) Order 2001

8.2.4 Terrorism Act 2006

8.3 Summary and Conclusions on the Compliance of the United Kingdom with the International Framework for Countering Terrorism

8.3.1 Terrorism-Related Offences

8.3.2 Treaty Action and Implementation

8.3.3 Implementation of Security Council Resolutions

References

Part II

Chapter 9: International and Regional Human Rights Law

9.1 International Human Rights Law

9.2 The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the European Convention on Human Rights

9.2.1 The General Nature of Human Rights Obligations Under the ICCPR and ECHR

9.2.1.1 Obligations Owed to Individuals

9.2.1.2 Temporal Scope of Obligations

9.2.1.3 Jurisdictional Scope of Obligations

9.2.1.4 Vertical and Horizontal Obligations

9.2.1.5 Obligations Applicable Without Distinction

9.2.1.6 Incorporation of Obligations

9.2.2 Rights Guaranteed by the ICCPR and ECHR

9.2.2.1 Rights Under the International Covenant

9.2.2.2 Rights Under the European Convention

9.2.2.3 The Death Penalty

9.2.2.4 Reservations and Derogations

9.2.3 The Human Rights Committee and the European Court of Human Rights

9.2.3.1 Interpretation of the ICCPR and ECHR

9.2.3.2 Individual Applications to the HRC and the European Court

9.2.3.3 Inter-State Complaints

9.2.3.4 Consideration of Periodic Reports by the Human Rights Committee

9.2.4 Remedies

9.3 Extraterritoriality and the Application of Human Rights in Armed Conflict

9.3.1 The Extraterritorial Application of Human Rights Law

9.3.2 Human Rights and International Humanitarian Law

9.4 Conclusions

References

Chapter 10:

328

10.1 Absolute and Non-derogable Rights

10.1.1 Absolute Rights

10.1.2 Non-derogable Rights

10.1.2.1 The List of Non-derogable Rights

10.1.2.2 `Absolute´ Versus `Non-derogable´ Rights

10.2 Features Common to the Limitation or Suspension of Rights

10.2.1 Margin of Appreciation

10.2.1.1 Margin of Appreciation in the Application of Substantive Rights

10.2.1.2 Margin of Appreciation in Declaring a State of Emergency

10.2.2 Limitations `Prescribed by Law´

10.2.2.1 Establishing a Legal Basis for the Interference

10.2.2.2 Discretionary Powers

10.2.3 Necessity

10.2.3.1 Express Limitations Rationally Linked to the Pursuit of Legitimate Aims

10.2.3.2 Express Limitations Necessary in a Democratic Society

10.2.4 Proportionality

10.2.5 Non-discrimination

10.2.5.1 Non-discrimination in the Derogation from Rights

10.2.5.2 Non-discrimination in the Application of Rights More Generally

10.3 Limitations Permitted by the Expression of Rights and Freedoms

10.3.1 Limitations by Interpretation

10.3.1.1 Fair and Reasonable

10.3.1.2 Arbitrary Conduct

10.3.2 Express Limitations

10.3.2.1 Limited Rights

10.3.2.2 Qualified Rights

10.3.2.3 National Security and the Interests of Territorial Integrity

10.3.2.4 Public Order

10.3.2.5 Public Health and Safety

10.3.2.6 Public Morals

10.3.2.7 Rights and Freedoms of Others

10.3.2.8 Maintaining the Authority and Impartiality of the Judiciary

10.3.2.9 Prevention of the Disclosure of Information Received in Confidence

10.3.2.10 Economic Well-being

10.4 Rights Derogable During States of Emergency

10.4.1 Procedural Conditions

10.4.1.1 Non-derogable Rights

10.4.1.2 Notice of Derogation

10.4.2 Substantive Conditions

10.5 Conclusions

References

Chapter 11: Human Rights in the Commonwealth

11.1 Frameworks for Human Rights Protection in the Case Study Countries

11.1.1 Human Rights Protection in Australia

11.1.2 Human Rights Protection in Canada

11.1.2.1 Entrenched Status of the Charter

11.1.2.2 Supreme Status of the Charter

11.1.2.3 The Charter and the Common Law

11.1.3 Human Rights Protection in New Zealand

11.1.3.1 Scope and Status of the Bill of Rights

11.1.3.2 Application of the Bill of Rights

11.1.3.3 The Bill of Rights and the Common Law

11.1.4 Human Rights Protection in the United Kingdom

11.1.4.1 Convention Rights

11.1.4.2 Application of the Human Rights Act

11.2 Human Rights and Statutory Interpretation

11.2.1 The Use of International Law in the Application and Interpretation of Civil Liberties

11.2.2 The Use of Human Rights in the Interpretation of Legislation

11.2.2.1 Australia

11.2.2.2 Canada

11.2.2.3 New Zealand

11.2.2.4 United Kingdom

11.2.3 Declarations of Incompatibility

11.2.3.1 Declarations of Incompatibility Under the UK Human Rights Act

11.2.3.2 The Development of Declarations of Incompatibility in New Zealand

11.2.4 Subordinate Legislation

11.2.4.1 UK Human Rights Act

11.2.4.2 NZ Bill of Rights Act

11.3 Law-Making, and Remedies

11.3.1 The Role of Human Rights in Law-Making

11.3.1.1 Australia

11.3.1.2 Canada

11.3.1.3 New Zealand

11.3.1.4 United Kingdom

11.3.2 Remedies

11.3.2.1 Remedies Under the Canadian Charter

11.3.2.2 Remedies Under the United Kingdom Human Rights Act

11.3.2.3 Remedies Under the New Zealand Bill of Rights Act

11.4 The Limitation of Rights

11.5 Human Rights Limitations Justifiable in a Free and Democratic Society

11.5.1 Preliminary Observations on the Application of Sections 1 and 5

11.5.1.1 Burden of Proof

11.5.1.2 Standard of Proof

11.5.1.3 Limits Versus Exceptions or Denials

11.5.1.4 Limits Prescribed by Law

11.5.1.5 Democratic Society

11.5.2 Substantive Test Under Sections1 and 5

11.5.2.1 Pressing and Substantial Objective in a Free and Democratic Society

11.5.2.2 Rational Connection

11.5.2.3 Minimal Impairment

11.5.2.4 Proportionality

11.5.3 Principles of Fundamental Justice and Section 1 of the Canadian Charter

11.6 Case Study: New Zealand´s United Nations Act 1946

11.6.1 Regulation-Making Powers in New Zealand

11.6.1.1 Limiting Enabling Provisions to Emergency Measures

11.6.1.2 Providing Additional Parliamentary Scrutiny

11.6.1.3 Regulations Abrogating Rights and Freedoms

11.6.2 How Should the United Nations Act and Bill of Rights Act Interact?

11.6.2.1 Applying Section 6 of the Bill of Rights

11.6.2.2 Applying Section 4 of the Bill of Rights to Section 2(2) of the United Nations Act

11.6.2.3 Recommendations

11.7 Conclusions

References

Part III

Chapter 12:

412

12.1 Terrorism, Human Rights, and International Peace and Security

12.2 Terrorism and Armed Conflict

12.2.1 The Use of Force Between States (Jus Ad Bellum)

12.2.2 International Humanitarian Law (Jus In Bello)

12.2.2.1 International Humanitarian Law and Terrorism

12.2.2.2 International Humanitarian Law and Human Rights

12.3 Terrorism and International Criminal Law

12.4 Terrorism and International Refugee Law

12.5 Conclusions

References

Chapter 13

432

13.1 States´ Duty to Comply with Human Rights While Countering Terrorism

13.1.1 UN General Assembly

13.1.2 UN Security Council

13.1.3 UN Human Rights Council and the Former Commission on Human Rights

13.2 UN and Other Action Reinforcing and Assisting States´ Duty to Comply with Human Rights

13.2.1 The Security Council´s Counter-Terrorism Committee

13.2.2 UNODC Terrorism Prevention Branch

13.2.3 UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights

13.2.4 Special Rapporteurs

13.2.5 Counter-Terrorism Implementation Task Force

13.2.6 International Guidelines and Documents

13.3 Handbook on Human Rights Compliance While Countering Terrorism

Condition1: Counter-Terrorist Law and Practice Must Comply with Human Rights Law

Condition2: The Right or Freedom to Be Restricted by a Counter-Terrorism Measure Must Allow for Limitation

Condition3: Counter-Terrorism Law and Practice Must Be Established by Due Process

Condition4: Counter-Terrorist Measures Seeking to Limit Rights Must Be Necessary

Condition5: Counter-Terrorist Measures Seeking to Limit Rights Must Be Proportional

13.4 Discrete Issues Concerning the Interface Between Counter-Terrorism and Human Rights

13.5 Conclusions

References

Chapter 14

465

14.1 Definitions of Terrorism

14.1.1 Special Rapporteur Evaluation of Australia´s Definition of a ``Terrorist Act´´

14.1.2 Definitions in Canada and New Zealand

14.1.3 The Definition of ``Terrorism´´ in the United Kingdom

14.1.4 Evaluative Summary

14.2 Terrorism Offences in the Case Study Countries

14.2.1 Principal, Inchoate, and Party Offences

14.2.2 Recruitment and Training Offences

14.2.3 Offences Beyond the Scope of Terrorism-Related Conventions

14.2.3.1 The Offence of Committing a Terrorist Act

14.2.3.2 `Bioterrorism´ Offences in New Zealand

14.2.3.3 Other Offences Going Beyond the Cumulative Characteristics in Security Council Resolution 1566 (2004)

14.2.3.4 Sedition Offences in Australia

14.2.4 Sentencing for Terrorism Offences

14.2.4.1 Maximum Penalties for Terrorism Offences

14.2.4.2 Sentencing Directions

14.3 The Incitement to Terrorism

14.3.1 The Phenomenon of the Incitement to Terrorism

14.3.2 Criminalising the Incitement to Terrorism

14.3.2.1 Suppressing the Incitement to Terrorism

14.3.2.2 The Council of Europe Convention on the Prevention of Terrorism

14.3.3 Incitement Under New Zealand Law

14.3.3.1 General Proscription Against Incitement

14.3.3.2 Party Offences

14.3.3.3 Procuring the Commission of Offences

14.3.3.4 Seditious Offences

14.3.3.5 Making Threats of Harm

14.3.3.6 Jurisdictional Issues in New Zealand´s Applicable Law

14.3.3.7 Summary and Evaluation of New Zealand´s Law on Incitement

14.3.4 Incitement Under Australian, Canadian and UK Law

14.3.4.1 Canada

14.3.4.2 Australia

14.4 Conclusions

References

Chapter 15: Special Investigative Techniques and Rules of Criminal Procedure

15.1 Special Powers of Questioning in New Zealand

15.1.1 Special Powers of Questioning

15.1.2 Sources of the Right Not to Incrimination Oneself

15.1.3 Application of the Common Law Privilege to the Summary Proceedings Act

15.1.4 Application of the NZ Bill of Rights to the Summary Proceedings Act

15.1.5 Reform

15.2 Tracking Devices and Interception Warrants

15.2.1 The Right to Privacy

15.2.2 Interception Warrants Under the Crimes Act 1961

15.2.2.1 Checks and Balances

15.2.2.2 Checks on the Use of Tracking Devices Under a Warrant

15.2.2.3 Checks on the Use of Tracking Devices Without a Warrant

15.2.2.4 Crown Law Office Advice to the Attorney-General

15.3 Reversal of Burden for the Granting of Bail

15.4 Operation of Special Techniques and Rules Outside the Framework of Combating Terrorism

15.5 The Role of Security Intelligence Services

15.6 Conclusions

References

Chapter 16: Arrest and Detention, and Investigative Hearings

16.1 Arrest and Detention in the United Kingdom

16.1.1 Powers of Arrest and Detention

16.1.1.1 Arrest and Detention Under the Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984

16.1.1.2 Arrest and Detention Under the Terrorism Act 2000

16.1.2 Investigative Detention Without Charge Beyond 36Hours

16.1.2.1 The Right to be Brought Promptly Before a Judge Following Arrest or Detention

16.1.2.2 Detention in Respect of Indictable Terrorism-Related Offences

16.1.2.3 Investigative Detention Under the Terrorism Act 2000

16.1.2.4 Necessity and Proportionality of Investigative Detention in the UK

16.1.2.5 The Right to Consult Counsel

16.2 Investigative Detention in Australia

16.2.1 Detention Under the Crimes Act 1914

16.2.2 Detention by the Australian Security Intelligence Organisation

16.3 Investigative Hearings

16.3.1 Privilege Against Self-Incrimination

16.3.2 Judicial Independence and Impartiality

16.3.3 Open Administration of Justice

16.4 Conclusions

References

Chapter 17: Derogations

565

17.1 Procedure, Substance, and the Margin of Appreciation

17.1.1 Derogating from the ECHR in the United Kingdom

17.1.2 Margin of Appreciation in Declaring a State of Emergency and Implementing Derogating Measures

17.1.3 Substantive Conditions Under the ICCPR and ECHR

17.1.3.1 War or Public Emergency

17.1.3.2 Exigencies of the Situation

17.1.3.3 Other International Obligations

17.1.3.4 Non-discrimination

17.2 Executive Detention Powers Under the Prevention of Terrorism (Temporary Provisions) Acts

17.3 Indefinite Detention Regime Under the Anti-terrorism, Crime and Security Act 2001

17.3.1 Establishment of the Indefinite Detention Regime

17.3.2 Evaluation of the Indefinite Detention Regime

17.3.2.1 Existence of a Public Emergency Threatening the Life of the Nation

17.3.2.2 Discriminatory Effect of Part 4 of the ATCS Act

17.4 Terrorism and the Derogation from Human Rights

17.4.1 The Threat of Terrorism as a State of Emergency

17.4.1.1 Derogating From the Right to Liberty

17.4.1.2 Terrorism as a Threat to the Life of the Nation

17.4.2 A Necessary and Proportionate Response

17.4.3 Consistency with International Obligations and the Principle of Non-discrimination

17.5 Conclusions

References

Chapter 18: Control Orders and Preventative Detention

18.1 The Control Order Mechanisms in the United Kingdom and Australia

18.1.1 Prevention of Terrorism Act 2005 (UK)

18.1.2 Division 104 of the Criminal Code 1995 (Australia)

18.2 The Making of Control Orders and the Right to a Fair Hearing

18.2.1 Open Administration of Justice

18.2.2 Right to Disclosure of Information

18.2.3 The Use of Special Advocates

18.2.4 Resulting Principles on the Right to a Fair Hearing

18.3 The Terms of Control Orders and Their Impact on the Enjoyment of Human Rights

18.3.1 The Right to Liberty

18.3.2 The Exercise of Other Human Rights

18.4 Control Orders, Standards of Proof, and Criminal Proceedings

18.4.1 Standards and Burden of Proof

18.4.2 Criminal Proceedings as an Alternative to Control Orders

18.4.3 Double Jeopardy

18.5 Preventative Detention Orders in Australia

18.6 Conclusions

References

Chapter 19: The Designation of Individuals and Groups as Terrorist Entities

19.1 An Overview of the Designation of Individuals and Entities

19.1.1 UN Listings

19.1.2 The Domestic Designation of Terrorist Entities

19.1.2.1 Designations in Australia

19.1.2.2 Designations in Canada

19.1.2.3 Designations in the United Kingdom

19.2 The Designation of Terrorist Entities Under New Zealand Law

19.2.1 The Making of Designations

19.2.1.1 Terrorist and Associated Entities

19.2.1.2 Political Consultation

19.2.1.3 Material Upon Which Designations may be Based

19.2.1.4 Notice of Designations

19.2.2 The Expiry and Review of Designations

19.2.2.1 Renewal of Final Designations

19.2.2.2 Internal, Government-Initiated, Reviews

19.2.2.3 Judicial Review Initiated by a Designated Individual or Entity

19.3 Human Rights Implications of the Designation of Individuals and Entities

19.3.1 Association and Peaceful Assembly

19.3.1.1 Peaceful Assembly, Association with Terrorist Entities, and the ICCPR

19.3.1.2 Peaceful Assembly, Association with Terrorist Entities, and the NZBORA

19.3.2 Natural Justice and the Right to a Fair Hearing

19.3.2.1 Due Process in Listings and De-listings by the United Nations

19.3.2.2 The Making of Domestic Designations

19.3.2.3 Executive Review of Domestic Designations

19.3.2.4 Judicial Review of Domestic Designations

19.3.2.5 Third Parties

19.4 Conclusions

References

Chapter 20: Speech, the Media, and Incitement to Terrorism

20.1 Media Control

20.1.1 The International Terrorism (Emergency Powers) Act 1987

20.1.1.1 The Availability of Judicial Review

20.1.1.2 The Unique Nature of the Prime Minister´s Powers

20.1.2 Freedom of the Press

20.1.2.1 Freedom of Expression and Freedom of the Press

20.1.2.2 Limiting the Freedom of the Press when Responding to Terrorism

20.1.3 Media Control as a Justifiable Limit to the Freedom of the Press

20.1.3.1 Media Control and the ICCPR

20.1.3.2 Media Control and Section 5 of the NZBORA

20.1.3.3 Conclusions

20.2 Incitement to Terrorism

20.2.1 The Freedom of Expression and Its Corollaries in the Context of Incitement Offences

20.2.1.1 Human Rights Committee General Comment 11

20.2.1.2 Parallel Human Rights Provisions

20.2.2 Safeguards in the Proscription of the Incitement to Terrorism

20.2.2.1 Necessity

20.2.2.2 Legality and Precision

20.2.2.3 Unlawful and Intentional Incitement

20.2.3 UK Incitement Offences Under the Terrorism Act 2006

20.2.3.1 The Offence of the Encouragement of Terrorism

20.2.3.2 The Offence of the Dissemination of Terrorist Publications

20.2.4 Assessing the Offences Under the Terrorism Act 2006

20.2.4.1 Do the Offences Involve Necessary Interferences with the Freedom of Expression?

20.2.4.2 Are the Offences Established Through Precise Prescriptions by Law?

20.2.4.3 Do the Offences Involve Unlawful and Intentional Incitement?

20.3 Conclusions

References

Chapter 21: Measures to Prevent the Transboundary Movement of Terrorists

21.1 Border Security

21.1.1 Advance Passenger Screening

21.1.2 The Use of Databases and Other Technologies

21.1.2.1 Machine Readable Travel Documents

21.1.2.2 Body Scanning Technologies

21.1.2.3 The Recording, Collection, Storage and Sharing of Information by Customs Authorities

21.1.3 Profiling

21.1.3.1 The Permissible Limits of Profiling

21.1.3.2 Profiling Under the Terrorism Act 2000 (UK)

21.2 The Treatment of Refugees and Asylum-Seekers

21.2.1 Detention Pending Removal

21.2.2 Application of Exclusion Clauses Under the Refugees Convention

21.3 The Return or Transfer of Terrorist Suspects

21.3.1 The Principle of Non-refoulement

21.3.2 The Return of Non-nationals Under Australia´s Migration Act 1958

21.3.3 Diplomatic Assurances

21.4 Conclusions

References

Chapter 22: Conclusion

22.1 Terrorism and Counter-Terrorism

22.1.1 Defining Terrorism

22.1.2 The International Framework for Combating Terrorism

22.1.3 Domestic Approaches to Counter-Terrorism

22.2 Human Rights Law

22.2.1 International and Regional Human Rights Law

22.2.2 Domestic Approaches to Human Rights

22.3 The Impact upon Human Rights of Terrorism and Its Prevention and Criminalisation

22.3.1 The Dynamic Impact of Terrorism

22.3.2 Human Rights Compliance While Countering Terrorism

22.3.2.1 Handbook on Human Rights Compliance While Countering Terrorism

22.3.2.2 Terrorism and the Derogation from Human Rights

22.3.2.3 Human Rights in the Prevention and Punishment of Terrorism in Context

22.3.3 The Criminalisation of Terrorism

22.3.3.1 Domestic Definitions of Terrorism

22.3.3.2 Terrorism Offences in the Case Study Countries

22.3.3.3 Incitement to Terrorism

22.3.3.4 Special Investigative Techniques and the Role of Intelligence Agencies

22.3.3.5 Sentencing for Terrorism Offences

22.3.4 The Right to Liberty

22.3.4.1 Investigative Detention

22.3.4.2 United Kingdom Derogations from the Right to Liberty

22.3.4.3 Control Orders and Their Impact on Liberty Rights

22.3.5 Natural Justice and the Right to a Fair Hearing

22.3.5.1 Open Administration of Justice

22.3.5.2 Disclosure of Information

22.3.5.3 The Role of Judges in Investigative Hearings

22.3.5.4 The Designation of Individuals and Groups as Terrorist Entities

22.3.6 The Presumption of Innocence and Privacy Rights

22.3.6.1 Privilege Against Self-Incrimination

22.3.6.2 Reversal of Onus for the Granting of Bail

22.3.6.3 The Engagement of Privacy Rights

22.3.6.4 Tracking Devices

22.3.7 Speech and Association

22.3.7.1 The Designation of Individuals and Groups as Terrorist Entities

22.3.7.2 Incitement to Terrorism

22.3.7.3 Media Control

22.3.8 Measures to Prevent the Transboundary Movement of Terrorists

22.3.8.1 Border Security

22.3.8.2 The Treatment of Refugees and Asylum-Seekers

22.3.8.3 Diplomatic Assurances

Appendices

Appendix 1: United Nations Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy

Appendix 2: Party Status of Case Study Countries to Conventions Related to Terrorism, Human Rights, Refugee Law and Humanitarian Law

Appendix 3: Terrorism-Related Offences

Appendix 4: Handbook on Human Rights Compliance While Countering Terrorism

Executive Summary

Condition 1: Counterterrorist Law and Practice Must Comply with Human Rights Law

1.1

847

Resolutions of the UN Security Council

UN Counter-Terrorism Committee

Resolutions of the UN General Assembly

Resolutions of the UN Commission on Human Rights

1.2

853

The Extraterritorial Application of Human Rights Law

The Interaction Between International Humanitarian Law and International Human Rights Law

Condition 2: The Right or Freedom to Be Restricted by

855

2.1

855

2.2

856

The List of Nonderogable Rights

The Limitation of Nonderogable Rights

2.3

858

Determining the Existence of a Public Emergency

Proclamation and Notice of a State of Emergency

Review

Permissible Extent of Derogating Measures

2.4

861

Condition 3: Counterterrorism Law and Practice Must Be Established by Due Process

3.1

863

3.2

863

3.3

864

3.4

864

Links to Existing Operational Definitions (``Trigger Offenses´´)

Cumulative Characteristics of Conduct to Be Suppressed

Condition 4: Counterterrorist Measures Seeking to Limit Rights

868

4.1

868

4.2

869

The Countering of an Actual Threat of Terrorism Against the State

The Countering of a Potential Threat of Terrorism Against the State

The Contribution of the Measure to the International Antiterrorist Framework

Rational Connection

Condition 5: Counterterrorist Measures Seeking to Limit

872

5.1

873

5.2

874

5.3

874

5.4

875

Index